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THE EIFFEL TOWER—A MARVEL OF ENGINEERING 

Erected for the Paris Exposition of 1889, the tower was also an attraction at the Exposition of 1900. It is built of metallic piers in viaducts, and is 984 feet high. The 

iron used in its construction weighs 7 . 3 °° tons. 

















The Handy Cyclopedia 


COMMON THINGS 

And Biographical Dictionary 


Edited by 

Prof. CHARLES MORRIS, LL.D. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY 


OF 

COMMON THINGS 

AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION 


Abdo / men. [U. abdomen .] In the human body 
the trunk is divided by the diaphragm into two 
cavities—the upper being the thorax or chest, 
and the lower the abdomen or belly. The abdo¬ 
men contains the stomach, liver, intestines, 
spleen, pancreas, kidneys, etc. It is lined by a 
serous membrane, which is folded over the or¬ 
gans, and allows them a certain freedom of move¬ 
ment, but keeps them in their proper relations 
to each other. (See Bozvels.) 

Aca'cia. A genus of plants of the Pulse family, 
including the catechu and gum-arabic trees. The 

species are numer¬ 
ous, are frequently 
thorny, and grow 
mostly in warm 
countries. Nearly 
300 species are Aus¬ 
tralian or Polynesian 
and have vertically 
compressed 1 eaf- 
stalks, instead of the 
bipinnate leaves of 
the much fewer spe¬ 
cies of Africa, etc. 
Very few are found 
in temperate cli¬ 
mates, but many are 
cultivated in green¬ 
houses for the sake of 
their flowers, which 
are of great beauty 
and often fragrant. 
The North American 
locust tree and other species of robinia are often 
called acacia in the United States and Europe, 
but wrongly. 

Accordion. A small musical instrument, with 
keys and bellows, the tones of which are prod¬ 
uced by the vibration of metallic springs, occas¬ 
ioned by a current of air rushing from the bel¬ 
lows through valves attached to the keys, and 
opened by the fingers of the player. 


Ace'tic Acid. [L,. acetum, vinegar; acidus, sour.] 
The most common of the vegetable acids, famil¬ 
iar to all as the sour principle in vinegar. It 
occurs in the juice of many plants, and in some 
animal secretions; but on the large scale it is 
prepared from damaged wines, by the fermenta¬ 
tion of malt, or by the destructive distillation of 
wood. Pure acetic acid is prepared by the dry 
distillation of wood. The pure acid has a sour 
taste and a pungent smell, is poisonous, and burns 
the skin. In the arts it is used as a mordant in 
calico-printing, and in the preparation of certain 
varnishes. It is also used as a condiment and in 
medicine. The salts of acetic acid are called 
acetates, the most important of them being ace¬ 
tate or sugar of lead. 

Acet'ylene. [U. acetum , vinegar.] A substance 
composed of carbon and hydrogen and of remark¬ 
able powers. It is not a new discovery but has 
only lately been produced in large quantities 
from carbide of calcium, a product of the electric 
furnace. When water is thrown on this sub¬ 
stance it gives off acetylene gas. It was found 
about 1895, that this gas, when burned in a suit¬ 
able burner, would give the brightest light of 
any known gas. When placed under strong 
pressure acetylene becomes a liquid, and the gas 
which arises from this is burned in suitable lamps, 
yielding a light twelve times as bright as that of 
ordinary coal gas. But this new light has not 
come into much use, for there is danger of ex¬ 
plosion. Acetylene has other uses, for a great 
many chemical substances can be made from it, 
belonging to what are called the hydrocarbons. 

Achromat/ic. [Gk. achromatos , colorless.] Free 
from color (applied to lenses, telescopes and 
microscopes); transmitting light without decom¬ 
posing it into its primary colors .—Achromatic 
lens, a combination of two dissimilar substances, 
as crown and flint glass, so arranged that the 
chromatic aberration produc d by the one is 
corrected by the other, and light passes unde¬ 
composed. 



579 


3 











4 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Acid. [L. acidus, sour.] A general term used 
iu chemistry to designate a special group of sub¬ 
stances, mostly, but uot always, oxygen com¬ 
pounds. The chief distinguishing property of 
acids, and one which is common to all of them, 
is that of combining with bases to form salts. 
They are also distinguished by their sour or acid 
taste, and by the power of turning blue vegetable 
colors into red. These blue colors are litmus, 
syrup of violets or of radishes. When these 
blues have been changed into green by an alkali, 
their color is restored by an acid. 

A'corn. [AS. cecern , from cecer, a field.] The 
seed or fruit of the oak, growing in a wooefy cup. 
Acorns contain starch and oil, and generally have 
a bitter taste. They are eaten freely by swine, 
while the fruit of some species are sweet and 
nutritious and are eaten by man. The oil has 
been used in cookery and for other purposes. 

Ad / der. [AS.] A name often applied to the com¬ 
mon viper, as well as to other kinds of venomous 
reptiles or serpents. In North America the term 
adder is commonly applied to several harmless 
snakes. 

Adult'eration. [T. adulteratio, corruption.] The 
mixing of foreign substances with articles of food 
and drugs, of water with milk, etc., for the pur¬ 
pose of defrauding customers. This is a very 
common practice, and often renders drugs use¬ 
less and food injurious, if not poisonous. Many 
laws have been passed to check it, but not with 
full effect. 

Aeolian Harp. [T. AEolus , the god of the wind.] 

A box of very thin wood, with strings of catgut 
or other vibratory material stretched across it, 
and sounding holes cut in the top. When placed 
in a current of air, as in a window between the 
raised sash and the sill, it yields a music sweet in 
tone, but usually sad iu character. 

Aerolite. [Gk. aer, air, and lithos , a stone.] A 
meteoric stone that conies into the atmosphere 

from space and falls 
to the earth. It is 
of the same nature 
as the shooting stars, 
small particles, which 
become so hot from 
friction with the at¬ 
mosphere that they 
are burned up. Aero¬ 
lites are very hot 
when they first fall. 
They are largely 
made up of pure iron, 
but contain also nickel, silicon, and other ele¬ 
ments. Some very large ones have been found 
weighing many hundreds of pounds. 

Afterglow. The brilliant twilight colors often 
seen after sunset. These are of red and yellow 
tints and sometimes are very lasting. If seen 
before sunset they are called foreglows. 

AgTite. [L,. achates ; so called from the name of 
the river Achates in Sicily, where it was first 
found.] A variety of quartz, found in loose 
rounded pieces in rocks, or as loose pebbles in ' 
beds of rivers or gravel. Wood may be converted 

580 


into agate by infiltration with waters carrying 
silica in solution, as in the celebrated petrified 
forest of Arizona. Agates show various tints in 
the same specimen, and the colors are delicately 
arranged in stripes or bands, or blended in clouds. 
They take a fine polish, and are much used in the 
manufacture of rings, seals, beads, handles of 
knives and forks, cups, smelling bottles, and 
many other ornamental articles. Burnishers for 
polishing, used by bookbinders, are made of agate. 

Aga / ve. The name of a genus of plants growing 
in tropical America. The principal species is 
known as the American Aloe, or century plant, 
under the idea that it blooms but once in a hun¬ 
dred years. This is a mistake, its period of 
blooming being about ten years. It is called 
maguey by the Mexicans, who distil from its sap 
an intoxicating drink. The coarse thread called 
sisal hemp is made from the fibres of its leaves. 

A'gue. [L,. acutus, sharp.] An intermittent fever, 
consisting of hot and cold stages in succession, 
with an intermediate period. It comes on at 
fixed periods, one, two, three, or more days 
apart. It is now generally known as malarial 
fever. Tong supposed to be due to marsh miasma, 
it is now traced to a bacterial germ, and there 
is much reason to believe that the mosquito is 
the carrier of this germ, which it injects into 
man with its bite. 

Air. [Fr., from Gk. aer , air ; aein, to blow.] The 
gaseous fluid which we breathe and which sur¬ 
rounds the earth. It is a mixture of oxygen and 
nitrogen, with a small amount of carbon dioxide, 
the average proportions being, by volume : oxy¬ 
gen, 20.96 percent.; nitrogen, 79.00 per cent.; 
carbon dioxide, 0.04 percent. (See Atmosphere; 
Compressed Air ; Liquid Air.) 

Air Bladder or Swim Bladder. A membranous 
sac found in most fish, which contains a quantity 
of gas, and is thought to help the fish to rise and 
sink in the water. It is very small in some fish, 
quite large in others, and wanting in sharks and 
some other fish. In some cases it is converted 
into a sort of lung and is used as a breathing 
organ. 

Air=brake. A brake now used on railroad cars 
and engines, invented in 1869, by George West- 
inghouse, of Pittsburg. Air is compressed by 
the steam of the engine boiler, and carried in 
tubes to the car wheels, where it exerts its pres¬ 
sure on the brakes when it is desired to stop the 
train. (See Brake.) 

Air=gun. A gun which uses compressed air in¬ 
stead of gunpowder to drive out the bullet. 
There is a piston to force the air into a cavity, 
and a valve opened by the trigger, which lets the 
air out against the bullet. This is driven out 
with some force. Air guns are of little use. 

Air=pump. An instrument for the withdrawal of 
air from a closed vessel, producing an empty 
space or vacuum ; in ordinary air-pumps the 
vacuum is very far from complete, and in the 
most perfect of them some air remains. Many 
interesting experiments may be performed in 
the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, such as 
the boiling of water at a much lower than the 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


5 


usual temperature, and the extinguishing of a 
candle, a proof that air is necessary to com¬ 
bustion. 

Alabaster. [Gk. alabastros .] A fine grained 

whitish limestone or marble. It is of two kinds, 
one of which is a carbonate of lime, the other a 
sulphate of lime or gypsum, and to the latter the 
term is now generally applied. It is carved into 
vases, mantel ornaments, statuettes, etc. 

Albatross. [Span.] A genus of large, web¬ 
footed, aquatic birds, allied to the gulls. They 
are the largest of sea-birds, capable of long-con¬ 
tinued flight, and are often seen hundreds of 
miles from land. They are found chiefly in the 
southern hemisphere. 

AlbiTmen or Albumin. JX. albus, white.] A 
nutritive substance found in animals; also a sup¬ 
ply of nourishing matter within the integuments 
of the seed in many plants, external to the em¬ 
bryo or germ in some, and within it in others. 
It is the floury part in wheat and other grains, 
and is a very important part of food. Albumen 
exists in many of the solids and fluids of the ani¬ 
mal body, also in many plants. It occurs in its 
purest form in the white of an egg, and in the 
serous or liquid portion of the blood. It is a yel¬ 
lowish, transparent, gum-like substance, soluble 
in cold water. One of the most characteristic 
properties of a solution of albumen is its power 
of coagulation. If a solution be heated to about 
70°, it becomes solid and opaque, and in this 
state it is insoluble in water, but dissolves in 
dilute alkalies. 

AFchemy. [Ar. Alkimia.~\ A pretended art 
arising from chemistry, by which it is sought to 
make gold or silver out of baser materials, or to 
produce a universal medicine. The conversion 
into gold was to be effected by what was called 
the philosophers'' stone. Alchemy was practiced 
for many centuries, but its only important re¬ 
sult was the discovery of various chemical ele¬ 
ments, such as sulphuric, nitric and muriatic 
acids. 

AFcohoI. [Fr., from Arab.] A volatile organic 
substance produced during the fermentation of 
vegetable juices which contain sugar. It is a 
colorless, limpid liquid, possessing an agreeable 
smell and burning taste ; is very inflammable, 
and burns with a bluish flame. It is used for 
thermometers in measuring low temperatures, 
and can be employed down to -39 F. It is pre¬ 
pared from spirituous liquors by successive dis¬ 
tillations. The alcohol being more volatile than 
water, comes off first; but it cannot be entirely 
separated from water by this process, since the 
strongest spirit so obtained contains 10 per cent, 
of water. To obtain pure alcohol, this water has 
to be removed by distilling the spirit with some 
substance capable of combining with water, such 
as quicklime or potassium carbonate. To the 
chemist alcohol is very useful as a solvent, and 
in medicine as a solvent and antiseptic agent. It 
is the alcohol in spirits, wines, and malt liquors 
to which the intoxicating effects of these bever¬ 
ages are due. In chemistry the term alcohols is 
applied to a considerable number of liquids 


which resemble ordinary alcohol in certain 
chemical reactions, and include methyl, propyl, 
and various other compounds. 

AFder. [AS. air or aler, L. alnus. ] A genus 
of plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, grow¬ 
ing chiefly in moist soils. The wood is used 
by turners, and is very valuable for mill-wheels 
and other wood-work underwater. It affords the 
best kinds of charcoal for making gunpowder, 
and its bark is used by dyers and tanners. 

Ale. [AS.] A liquor made from an infusion of 
pale malted barley by fermentation with a bitter, 
usually hops. (See Beer.) 

AFgebra. [Arab, al-jebr , reduction of parts 
to a whole.] A sort of universal arithmetic, 
in which the unknown terms are expressed by 
letters of the alphabet, and dealt with as if 
known. By this means very intricate problems 
can be solved, which would be impossible with 
ordinary figures. In the higher mathematics 
algebra is of extreme importauce. 

Aliz'arine. [Fr. alizarine.\ A peculiar coloring 
principle obtained from madder, and now pro¬ 
duced artificially from the coal-tar product an¬ 
thracene. It is the coloring matter used in the 
dyeing of Turkey red. 

AFkali. [Arab.] The name applied in chemistry 
to a class of bodies possessing the following 
common properties:—(1) They have the power 
of turning vegetable blue colors green, and 
vegetable yellows brown ; (2) they restore the 
color to a blue solution which has been reddened 
by an acid ; (3) they have a strong affinity for 
acids, combining with them to form salts which 
possess neither acid nor alkaline properties— 
hence an acid and an alkali are said to neutralize 
one another ; (4) they are all soluble in water. 
The alkalies proper are four in number—potash, 
soda, lithia and ammonia. They exert a power¬ 
fully corrosive action on animal and vegetable 
substances. As bicarbonates they are often used 
along with carbonic acid to correct acidity of the 
stomach. 



AFligator. [Span, el legarto , the lizard.] A large 
American reptile of the Crocodile family. It has 
a shorter and broader snout than the crocodile, 
and the large teeth of the lower jaw fit into pits 




6 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OL COMMON THINGS 


in the edge of the upper jaw, which has no 
notches. Alligators vary in length from 2 to 20 
feet, the head being about one-seventh of the 
entire length. They embrace three genera, the 
alligator, abundant in Florida, and the caiman 
and jacare, found in tropical South America. 
The caiman is also found in Mexico. Their 
principal food is fish, but they catch and devour 
land animals, as the sheep and pig, and some¬ 
times even men. An alligator lays from 50 to 60 
large eggs in a hollow in the mud, covered over 
with grass and reeds, and leaves them to be 
hatched by the sun. The young take to the 
water as soon as hatched, being carefully tended 
by the mother alligator. The skin when tanned 
makes good leather for boots and shoes. 

Alloys'. [Fr. a loi, from L. ad legem , according 
to rule.] The name given to the mixtures which 
result from fusing different metals with each 
other. Both gold and silver when pure are too 
soft for the manufacture of plate, coin, or jewelry; 
but wheu mixed with a small percentage of 
copper, they are rendered harder and more 
durable, without suffering any loss in color. 
One of the most useful alloys in the arts is brass. 
It consists of zinc and copper, and the proportion 
of each metal in the compound is regulated to 
suit the quality of the brass required. Among 
the important alloys of copper and tin are (1) 
bronze, containing 90 parts of copper and 10 of 
tin ; (2) bell-metal, containing 80 parts of copper 
and 20 of tin ; (3) speculum-metal, containing 67 
parts of copper and 33 of tin. Type-metal varies 
somewhat in its composition ; one variety con¬ 
sists of 80 parts of lead and 20 of antimony. 
Aluminium-bronze and nickel-steel are important 
recent alloys. The alloys of other metals with 
mercury are termed amalgams , and the process of 
amalgamation has long been employed in separ¬ 
ating fine gold from other materials. 

All'spice. From a tree of the Myrtle tribe, a 
native of the West Indies, allspice, or Jamaica 
pepper, is obtained. Allspice is the dried berry; 
it is so called because it is considered to have the 
flavor of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg combined. 
It is mildly pungent and agreeably aromatic. 

Al'manac. A book or pamphlet telling the 
divisions of the year into months, weeks, and 
days, the times of rising and setting of the sun 
and moon, movements of the tides, eclipses, and 
other information about the earth and the stars. 
Almanacs formerly pretended to foretell the 
weather, but only ignorant persons beleived 
this. Almanacs are now published giving many 
facts of official and other kinds. ‘ ‘ Poor Richard’s 
Almanack,” published by Benjamin Franklin in 
1732, is a well-known and interesting almanac. 
It was published for 25 years and was filled with 
wise and pithy sayings, inculcating industry and 
frugality as helps to virtue. 

AFmond. [Fr., from Gk. amygdalon .] The fruit 
of the almond tree, a native of the East and of 
Africa, grown in the countries around the Med¬ 
iterranean, and of late years produced in large 
quantities in California. The fruit or nut is 
covered with a hard green shell, which dries as it 

582 


ripens, and finally bursts open and lets the 
almond drop out. The principal varieties in 
cultivation are the sweet, bitter, thin-shelled, 
thick-shelled, and Jordan almonds. Sweet 
almonds are used in confectionery and for dessert. 
They contain a large quantity of a bland fixed 
oil, are of a very agreeable taste, and very nutri¬ 
tious. Bitter almonds contain a substance called 
amygdalin, from which a peculiar volatile oil is 
obtained. The Jordan almonds, brought from 
Malaga, are the finest. Almond wood is a very 
hard, dense wood, something like lignum vibe. 
It is used for the teeth and bearings of wooden 
cog-wheels. 

Al'oe. [L. aloe.] A genus of succulent trees and 
shrubs of many species, but the greater number 
having the habit and appearance of evergreen 
herbaceous plants. They are natives of warm 
climates, and flower only once, after a growth of 
from fifty to one hundred years. The fibres of 
the leaves are manufactured into thread, cords, 
and nets, and stockings are woven from the fibres 
of a species found in Jamaica. But aloes arc 
chiefly valuable for their medicinal properties, 
the drug called aloes being obtained from the 
juice of several species. 

Alpac'a. An animal of Peru, having long, fine, 
woolly hair; a species of llama ( q . v .). The 
thin cloth called alpaca is woven out of alpaca 
wool, mixed with silk or cotton. 

Alphabet. [Gk. Alpha and Beta , the first two 
letters of the Greek alphabet.] The name given 
to the series of letters of which the words of any 
language are made up. Alphabets are very 
ancient, and every civilized nation has one of its 
own. In the Hebrew there are letters for the 
consonants only. Some alphabets have a letter 
for each syllable, and the Chinese have a character 
for every word. The English alphabet has 
twenty-six letters. Some have fewer and some 
more, the Russian having thirty-six. 

AFum. [E. alumen.] A wdiite saline compound 
used in dyeing and many other industrial 
processes. Chemically it is known as a double 
sulphate of potassium and aluminium. It 
has an astringent and sweetish taste, turns 
vegetable blue colors red, dissolves in water and 
melts when heated. When more strongly heated 
it loses its water of crystallization, leaving the 
white substance known as burnt alum, which is 
used as a caustic. It has many highly important 
uses in the arts, as a mordant in dyeing, etc., and 
in medicine it is of great use as an astringent in 
stopping bleeding. Wood and paper which have 
been dipped in a solution of alum are less liable 
to catch fire. 

AlumirFium. [L,. alumen.] A white metal, 
somewhat like silver in appearance. It occurs 
chemically combined in all the older rocks and 
in clay. It is very malleable, and therefore 
capable of being hammered into thin sheets or 
drawn into fine wire. Being highly sonorous, it 
is a suitable substance for bells. It is very light, 
being only 2j4 times heavier than water, and 
therefore 4 times lighter than silver. It melts 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


7 


when heated to redness, and has no action on 
water at ordinary temperatures. On account of 
its bright lustre, hardness, and malleability, it is 
largely used for jewelry, for balance beams, and 
in making sextants and other astronomical in¬ 
struments, and on account of its lightness for 
many other purposes. It forms alloys with most 
of the metals. It was first discovered in 1828, 
and was not produced in commercial quantities 
until 1855. It is now cheaply produced by elec¬ 
tricity. 

Amal'gam. [Fr., from Gk. malagtna , a plaster.] 
An alloy of mercury with another metal or 
metals. Amalgams are largely made use of in 
the arts. Metals are sometimes gilded by wash¬ 
ing them with an amalgam of gold and mercury; 
the mercury is then driven off by heat, leaving 
the gold on the metal. 

ArrFber, [Arab]. A hard, yellow, translucent 
resin, found as a fossil in beds of lignite, in 
alluvial soils, and on sea-coasts, especially the 
Prussian coast of the Baltic. It takes a fine 
polish, and is much used for making ornaments, 
such as necklaces, earrings, pendants, and beads; 
for the mouth-pieces of pipes and cigar-holders, 
and for burning for perfume. It is also used as 
a basis for a fine varnish. By friction it becomes 
strongly electric. 

ArrFbergris. [Fr. ambre gris, gray amber.] A 
substance found floating in the sea or thrown 
upon the coasts in warm climates, and also in the 
intestines of the sperm whale, which is believed 
to be in all cases its true origin. The floating 
masses are sometimes from 60 to 250 lbs. in 
weight. In color it is gray, yellow, white, or 
black, and often variegated like marble. It is 
much used in perfumery, and to improve the 
flavor of wines and cordials. In Asia and Africa 
it is used as a medicine, also as a condiment in 
cooking. 

ArrFethyst. [L. amethystus , from Gk. amethys- 
tos , without drunkenness, because the ancients 
believed that liquor drunk out of cups made 
of amethyst would not intoxicate.] A variety 
of rock-crystal or quartz, of a purple or bluish- 
violet color, much used as a precious stone for 
rings, seals and other ornaments. 

Ammo'nia. [Gk. Ammon, a name of Jupiter.] A 
chemical compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, 
containing three atoms of the former to one of 
the latter. It is an alkaline substance ; but as it 
differs from the other alkalies (see Alkali ) in 
being gaseous, it is often called the volatile 
alkali. The gas is colorless, and has a very 
strong and pungent smell, by which it is easily 
recognized. It is found in minute quantities in 
the air, being evolved during the putrefaction 
of animal and vegetable substances. Traces of it 
are also found in rain-water and in the breath. 
Water absorbs it readily, hence ammonia is said 
to be very soluble in water. The solution is 
known to chemists as liquor ammonice , and in 
shops it is sometimes sold under the name of 
hartshorn. Liquor ammonise is sometimes used 
in medicine ; it has a stimulating action 011 the 
breathing, and is useful in alleviating spasms, 


and to some extent in counteracting the effects 
arising from the bites of snakes and poisonous 
insects. By the evaporation of liquid ammonia 
great cold is produced, and this fact is utilized 
in the manufacture of ice in ice-machines. 

Am'ulet. [L- amuletum. ] An ornament or any 
object which is worn as a safeguard against 
enchantment, disease, or ill fortune. It is gener¬ 
ally inscribed with mystical characters. Amulets 
were greatly used in the past, and are still in use 
among undeveloped peoples. 

Anaflomy, Comparative. [Gk. anatome , dis¬ 
section.] The study of the structure of ani¬ 
mals, and comparison of their various organs 
with one another and with those of man. 
It is by this study that animals are separated 
into families, gen era, species, and other divisions. 
Human anatomy is confined to the study of the 
bony skeleton, muscles, nerves, and other organs 
of man. 

Anaesthetic. [Gk. an, in-; aisthesis, sensibility.] 
A chemical substance capable of producing 
insensibility, much used to prevent pain in 
surgical operations. Nitrous oxide was first 
used in tooth drawing in 1844. Ether was used 
for the same purpose in 1846, and chloroform 
and other substances later. Now no important 
surgical operation is performed without an anaes¬ 
thetic. Local anaesthesia can be produced by 
cocaine, by freezing the surface with a spray of 
ether or chloride of etliel, and in other ways. 

Ancho'vy. [Span, anchova. ] A small fish of the 
Herring family, but not more than three inches 
long, caught in vast numbers in the Mediterra¬ 
nean, and pickled for exportation. The fisher¬ 
men go out during the night, carrying torches 
in their boats. The fish see the light, and swim 
up to the boats in great numbers, when the}' are 
scooped up with nets. 

Anemometer. [Gk. anenios , wind ; and inetron , 
a measure.] A wind-measurer, to show both the 

pressure and the 
velocity of the 
wind. A pres¬ 
sure anemometer 
measures the 
force of the wind 
on a plate one 
foot square attached to one 
end of a spiral spring placed 
horizontally. The plate, 
by the action of the wind, 
is pressed against the 
spring, which yields, and 
by a pencil traces a curve 
on a strip of paper placed 
Jill below it. Another pencil 

connected with the vane 
records the changes in the direction of the wind. 
Thervelocity of the wind is indicated by the 
revolution of wheels, the number of whose turns 
is recorded automatically. 

AnerrFone. [Gk. anemos , the wind.] So named 
because the flower was thought to open only 
when the wind blows. A genus of plants belong¬ 
ing to the Buttercup family. There are several 

5 8 3 












8 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


species, one of which has a flower, white inter¬ 
nally, more or less purple externally. Sea 
Anemone is the name given to certain ocean 
animals, of the Polyp family, which bear some 
resemblance to flowers. 

AiPeroid. (See Barometer .) [Gk. a , not; neros, 
wet; and eidos , form.] A barometer whose 

action depends on 
the varying pres¬ 
sure of {he atmos¬ 
phere upon the 
elastic top of a 
metallic box from 
which the air has 
been exhausted. 
By a system of 
levers connected 
with the box, and 
an internal spring, 
motion is given 
to an index, 
which registers 
the variation of 
atmospheric pres¬ 
sure. 

Aniline. [Ar. annil, for alnil, the indigo plant.] 
Aniline was first prepared from indigo in 1826, 
and takes its name from anil , the Portuguese 
word for indigo. It is now derived from the dis¬ 
tillation of coal-tar. It is a colorless liquid, 
possessing a peculiar smell, and slightly heavier 
than water, and boils at a temperature of 36o°F. 
The aniline of commerce was first obtained in 
1858 by a Mr. Perkin, in the preparation of a 
dye-stuff derived from aniline. This was known 
as mauve or Perkin’s blue. Every shade and tint 
of color are produced by the aniline dyes, which 
are used not only in dyeing, but in preparing 
colored inks, in manufacturing colored papers, 
in printing wall-paper, and in coloring soaps, 
perfumes and cosmetics. 

An'imal. [L,. animal a living being; anima, 
breath.] A living being with an organized ma¬ 
terial body, and endowed with the powers of sen¬ 
sation and voluntary motion. All animals are 
classed together in one great body called the 
Animal Kingdom, which is separated into a num¬ 
ber of sub-kingdoms or grand divisions, of which 
the highest is the vertebrata, or animals with an 
internal skeleton. 

Ant. [Contracted from the Saxon word emmet .] 
An insect of the family Formicidcc , which em¬ 
braces between two and three thousand different 
forms, widely distributed in temperate and tropi¬ 
cal countries. Ants usually live together in 
swarms, sometimes many thousands in number, 
and are distinguished from insects generally by 
their extraordinary intelligence. Among them, 
as among bees, there are workers, besides the 
males and females. The females are the largest, 
the males next in size, and the workers the 
smallest and without wings. Ants are very 
active and strong for their size, and among the 
most industrious of all animals. Their dwellings 
usually consist of hillocks of earth, most wonder¬ 
fully constructed, and containing many little 

584 


rooms, in which they store their provisions, and 
nurture their young. The food of ants consists 
chiefly either of animal matter, or of sweet vege¬ 
table substances, such as honey, sugar, and fruit. 
There are many species of ants, differing con¬ 
siderably in their habits—as the agricultural, 
carpenter, foraging, honey, amazon, etc. They 
have many remarkable habits, fighting battles 
in which large armies take part, keeping and 
milking the aphis, or ant-cow, cultivating cer¬ 
tain grasses with palatable seeds by the destruc¬ 
tion of other species, and displaying other evi¬ 
dences of high intelligence. The insects known 
as termites, or white ants, are not properly ants, 
but belong to a different class of insects, yet re¬ 
semble the ants in intelligence. They live in hot 
countries, and sometimes gnaw out all the inside 
of the beams of houses, leaving only a thin cas¬ 
ing. In Africa white-ants live together in vast 
colonies, some living in houses which they dig , 
underground, some burrowing in wood, while 
others build up large mounds, ten or twelve feet 
high, with smaller mounds around them. 

Antelope. [Gk. anthein , to flower or shine ; and 
ops, the eye.] A genus of ruminating animals, 
intermediate between the deer and the goat. Their 
horns are hollow and permanent, not annually re¬ 
newed ; those of the deer are solid, and shed every 
year. Their horns are also round and curved, with 
rings running round them, and are always black. 
There are many species in Africa, about fifteen 
in Asia, two, the chamois and the saiga, in Eu¬ 
rope, and two, the pronghorn and the Rocky 
Mountain goat, in North America. In Africa, 
particularly in South Africa, antelopes are very 
abundant, some of the species congregating in 
immense herds. Their sizes vary from the 
Guavy, or Pigmy Antelope of Africa, only eight 
or nine inches high, to forms which are five or 
six feet high. Most of them yield palatable food, 
and they are much hunted 

Anter/nte. [E. antenna, sail-yard.] Slender ar¬ 
ticulated organs on the head of insects and Crus¬ 
tacea. There are two in the former, and usually 
four in the latter. They are used as organs of 
touch, and in insects are called horns or feelers. 

Anthrax. [Gk. coal.] This was the name for¬ 
merly given to the painful swelling or eruption 
now called carbuncle. It is now used for a dis¬ 
ease often fatal to sheep and cattle, and occasion¬ 
ally attacking man. It is also destructive to 
horses and camels and many of the smaller ani¬ 
mals. When acute, the animal falls and goes 
into convulsions, and soon dies. The disease 
has been known by many names. In man it is 
called Malignant Pustule, Wool-sorters’ Disease, 
etc. It is believed to be due to a minute germ, 
named bacillusanthracis, which enters the system 
and multiplies in the blood with great rapidity. 

Anthracite. [Gk. anthrax, coal.] A species of 
hard mineral coal pr carbon, of a metallic lus¬ 
tre, containing little or no bitumen. It is diffi¬ 
cult to ignite, but burns with intense heat, and 
nearly without smell, smoke, or flame. It is 
principally found in Eastern Pennsylvania, and 
is said also to be abundant in China. 












ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


9 


Anthropology. [Gk. anthropos, man ; logos , a 
discourse.] The science of man. It includes 
the study of man as an animal and as a thinking 
being, and ethnology, or the study of race 
divisions. It includes, in short, all that can be 
learned about man in any direction. 

An'timony. [B. antimonium .] A metal of a bright 
bluish - white color and crystalline structure. 
When strongly heated it burns with a white 
dame, giving off the fumes of “ flowers of anti¬ 
mony,” a compound with oxygen. It is a bad 
conductor of heat and electricity. It does not 
rust or tarnish when exposed to the air at ordi¬ 
nary temperatures. This property, combined 
with its hardness, renders it of great service in 
the arts in the formation of alloys. Pewter, 
type metal, Britannia metal, are all alloys of 
antimony. The metal is generally prepared from 
the mineral stibnite, a compound of antimony 
and sulphur. This ore is found in France, Spain, 
Italy, Canada, Borneo, and Australia. It has 
been long used in Eastern countries for darken¬ 
ing the eyebrows. Tartar-emetic contains anti¬ 
mony, tartaric acid and potash. 

Antiseptics. [Gk. anti , against, septikos , 
putrefying.] Substances w’hich act to prevent 
decay or putrefaction of organic materials. 
Among the many antiseptics may be named 
sugar, alcohol, carbolic acid, charcoal, nitre, 
alum, and chloride of zinc. They are used for 
the preservation of food substances. Cold has a 
powerful antiseptic action, and cold storage is 



ANVIL AND HAMMER 


one of the best and cheapest of food preservers. 
Antiseptic surgery or Bisterism is a mode of 
treating surgical wounds, introduced by Sir 
Joseph Bister. In this the wound and the 
instruments are treated with carbolic acid or 
other antiseptics to prevent dangerous germs 
from entering. This has proved wonderfully 
successful, and has enabled surgeons to perform 
operations successfully which would have led to 
certain death under the old system of treatment. 


Anvil. [AS. on; and fyllan, to strike.] An iron 
block, usually with a steel face and a pointed 
end, upon which metals are hammered and 
shaped. Anvils are of various sizes, from the 
small steel ones used by goldsmiths to the im¬ 
mense cast-iron ones used under steam-hammers. 

Ape. [AS. apa.\ A term generally applied to 
the monkeys, though by some the Anthropoids, 
or highest forms, are not included in the apes. 
Others consider these the only apes. They usu¬ 
ally dwell in trees, where their power of grasping 
with both hands and liand-like feet enables them 
to grasp the limbs with great ease, and to jump 
from branch to branch without danger of falling. 
They closely approach the human species in ana¬ 
tomical structure, and the higher forms, the 
gorilla, chimpanzee, and oraug-outaug, are often 
called anthropoids, or man like apes. 

A / phis. The plant louse ; a kind of insect which 
is parasitic upon plants, injuring them by sucking 
their juices. They are extremely prolific and 
very injurious. They exude a sweet, viscid fluid 
knowii as honeydew of which ants and bees are 
very fond, and ants often take care of and seem 
to milk the aphides. These are therefore known 
as ant cows. 

Appendicitis. [B. appendix. ] This is a name 
given of late years to inflammation of the vermi¬ 
form appendix, a small, finger-shaped tube, 
depending from the large intestine. Many deaths 
in the past whose cause was unknown, may have 
been due to it. If severe, it is now often healed 
surgically, the e.bdomen being opened and the 
inflamed appendix removed, or otherwise treated. 

Ap / ple, [AS.] One of the most widely diffused 
of fruit-trees, growing best in the colder parts of 
the temperate zone ; also its fruit. The tree at¬ 
tains a moderate height, with spreading branches 
bearing beautiful flowers that have a delicate 
fragrance. The fruit is roundish in shape, with 
a depression at each end. The original of the 
cultivated apple is the wild apple or crab-tree, 
found in most of the countries of Europe. 
Though there were no apples in America when 
it was first settled, trees were introduced, and 
some of the finest apples, such as greenings, 
b ild wins, Newtown pippins, etc., are now grown, 
and sent in large quantities to Europe, China 
and India. The number of varieties of the ap¬ 
ple produced by cultivation is very large, and it 
is perhaps the most useful to man of all the 
fruits. The wood of the apple tree is hard, close- 
grained, and often richly colored, and is used by 
turners and cabinet makers. 

A / pricot. [Fr. abricot , from B. prcecox , early 
ripe.] A stone fruit, belonging to the same 
genus as the plum, but resembling a peach, 
being of an orange color, oval shape and 
delicious taste. The tree grows wild in Ar¬ 
menia and the countries eastward to China 
and Japan, and by cultivation it has been intro¬ 
duced throughout the temperate zone. It was 
brought into Europe in the time of Alexander 
the Great, and into England about the middle of 
the 16th century. The dried apricots of Italy are 
sent to foreign countries, those of Bokhara and 

585 











IO 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


other parts of the East to Russia, while the pre¬ 
served apricots of Damascus are famous. Many 
apricots are now raised iu California. 

Aqua / rium. [E. aqua , water.] An artificial 
pond, or a globe or tank (usually with glass 
sides), for containing and showing aquatic ani¬ 
mals aud plants and their modes of living. 
Small aquariums are now often kept in houses 
for study and amusement. 

Aqueduct. [E. Aqua , water, and ductus , pas¬ 
sage.] Au artificial channel to convey water for 

city supply 
and other pur- 
poses. The 
Romans had 
great stone 
aqueducts, in 
some places 
raised on high 
arches, in 
others cut 
through the 
hills. Some 
of these are 
still in use. 
Some of the 
largest of modern aqueducts are the Crcton 
Aqueduct, which conveys water to New York 
City, and the Cocliituate Aqueduct, of Boston, 
which is fifteen miles long. 

Arch. [E. arcus. Fr. arche. ] A self-sustaining 
structure, usually of a curved form, made up of 
separate wedge-shaped solids, with the joints 
between them disposed iu the direction of the 
radii of the curve, used to support the wall or 
other weight above an opening. The beginning 
of the arch is called the spring, the two bottom 
stones being the springers, the middle the crown 
or keystone, and the parts between the crown and 
the spring the haunches. A flat arch is con¬ 
structed of stones cut into wedges or other 
shapes, so as to support each other without rising 
into a curve. 

Arch£EoFogy. [Gk. archaios, ancient.] The study 
of the ancient relics of human art. These are 
very numerous, and are found in all parts of the 
earth, advancing from the rough tools and 
weapons of the stone-age to the splendid 
examples of the five arts found in the mines of 
ancient Greece. 

Ar / chery. [E. arcus, bow.] The art*of shooting 
with a bow and arrow. This was in very common 
use before the invention of firearms, and archery 
is still practiced as an amusement. The bow is 
usually made of yew or ash, and the arrows of 
ash. A good archer can send an arrow from 200 
to 250 yards. In the Middle Ages the fate of 
battles was often decided by the skill of the 
archers. 

Ar'gon. A gas existing in the atmosphere, first 
discovered in 1895 by Eord Ragleigh and William 
Ramsay. It is heavier than nitrogen and occurs 
in a very minute quantity. The discoverers 
were rewarded by the Smithsonian Institution 
with a prize of $10,000, offered for the most 
important new fact concerning the atmosphere. 

586 




Armor. A protection worn in ancient time con¬ 
sisting of helmet, body armor, and limb ainior, 
though varying at different periods in the 
amount of the body covered. The shield served 

as a move- 
able piece of 
armor. Since 
the inven¬ 
tion of gun¬ 
powder ar¬ 
mor has been 
of little use 
aud hence 
has been 
discarded. 

Armor- 
plate. The 
larger and 
more power¬ 
ful warships 
arc in these 
times cover¬ 
ed with a 


strong armor 
made of 
thick plates 
of steel, iu 
some cases 
from 16 to 
more than 
20 inches thick. The steel is often alloyed with 
nickel to make it harder, and its surface is speci¬ 
ally hardened, so as to enable it to resist the blows 
of the great shot from modern rifled cannon. The 
armor-plate is carried below the water-line, and 
covers the gun turrets, while thinner plate is laid 
011 the decks. Not only battle ships, but forts, are 
now made strong by armor-plate, which shields 
the men, and behind which the guns are drawn 
down after firing. 

Arrowroot. A kind of starch used as food, 
obtained principally from the root of a West 
India plant now cultivated in many warm 
countries, and from some other plants. It is said 
that the Indians used the root to cure the wounds 
made by poisoned arrows, hence the name. 

Arsenic. [Gk. arsen , a male (on account of its 
strength).] A metallic element, seldom found 
free in nature, but frequently found in combina¬ 
tion with other elements, such as sulphur, iron, 
cobalt, and nickel. The metal is generally 
prepared from arseuious oxide, or white arsenic, 
one of its compounds with oxygen. It has a 
bright-gray lustie; it tarnishes in the air by 
oxidation ; its weight is about five aud a half 
times greater than water; when heated to dull 
redness it rises into vapor without first fusing, 
and its vapor emits a strong odor of garlic. 
Metallic arsenic is not of great importance iu 
the arts. A11 alloy of copper and arsenic 
produces a brilliant gray metal used in the 
manufacture of buttons. A compound of arsenic 
and copper forms a bright substance largely used 
as a pigment under the name of Scheele's green. 
It was formerly much employed by paper-stainers 
in the manufacture of wall paper. Sheep-dipping 














































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


mixtures consist of a compound of arsenic and 
soda dissolved in a large quantity of water, 
together with soap and sulphur. Arsenic has 
long been used as a medicine, and is used in 
some countries with the belief that it improves 
the complexion, but it is a dangerous poison, 
being fatal to adults in doses of from 2 to 3 
grains. No effective antidote to it is known. 

Art. A11 art is something performed by man 
through the instigation of the mind. In use 
the word is divided into the Common and the 
Fine Arts. A common art is something done 
for the benefit of man, such as the arts of manu¬ 
facture. A fine art is something done for the 
enjoyment of man, as the art of painting. 

Artery. [Gk. arteria , the windpipe ; a blood¬ 
vessel.] One of the vessels or tubes which 
carry arterial blood from the heart throughout 
the body, and venous blood from the heart to 
the lungs. They have thicker and more muscular 
walls than veins, and are connected with them 
by capillaries. In man and other mammals the 
arteries which contain arterialized blood receive 
it from the left ventricle of the heart through 
the aorta. The pulmonary artery conveys the 
venous blood from the right ventricle to the 
lungs, whence the arterialized blood is returned 
through the pulmonary veins. 

Ar'tesian Wells. In nature it often happens 
that a layer of water collects between two strata, 
such as clay, through which water cannot pene¬ 
trate. If the ground from which the water 
has been gathered is high, the pressure at 
the bottom of the layer will sometimes be 
very great; and on boring through the re¬ 
taining bed, the pressure of the water will be 
sufficient to force it up the shaft to the surface 
of the ground, and in some cases to cause it to 
spring into the air from the mouth of the well. 
This is in accordance with the hydrostatic law 
that water rises to its own level. In Europe, 
this method of boring was first practiced in the 
ancient French province of Artois (hence the 
name Artesian); but it is now extensively 
applied in all parts of Europe, in America, and 
in other parts of the world. The artesian well 
at Grenelle, near Paris, is 1,798 feet deep ; 
another at Passy, near Paris, is 1,923 feet deep. 
In America the borings reach a depth of from 
2,000 to 3,000 feet. The water from these deep 
wells being always warmer than surface water, 
maintains a constant temperature in hospitals 
and manufactories, warms greenhouses, and 
reduces variations of cold in fish-ponds. 

Artichoke. [Ital.] A plant litce the thistle, but 
having large, scaly heads like the cone of the 
pine tree. It is cultivated in the south of Eu¬ 
rope, and is much esteemed as an article of food. 
The unripe flower-heads are boiled, and the fleshy 
lower part of the scales or leaves eaten, dipped 
in olive oil or butter, with a little salt and pepper. 

ArtiPlery. fFr., from Low L-, artillare, to make 
machines.] Weapons of war; large ordnance, 
including guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets, and 
engines of war of all kinds, with their carriages, 
ammunition, and apparatus. Also-the men and 


11 

officers of that branch of the army to which the 
care and management of artillery are confided. 

Asbes / tos. [Gk. asbestos , that cannot be 
quenched.] A mineral substance, unaffected by 
fire, occurring in long and delicate fibres, or in 
fibrous masses or seams, usually of a white, gray, 
or green-gray color. The finer varieties have 

been wrought 
into gloves and 
cloth which are 
incombustible. 
The cloth has 
been recom¬ 
mended for fire¬ 
men’s clothes. 
Asbestos is also 
employed in 
the manufac- 
ure of iron 
safes, fireproof roofing, and lamp-wicks, and 
is used, as a poor conductor of heat, for packing 
around steam pipes, valves, etc. The largest 
mines are in the province of Quebec, Canada. 

Ash. [AS.] A genus of trees of the Olive family, 
mostly natives of Europe and of North America. 
There are about fifty species. The common ash 
is a beautiful and umbrageous tree, highly orna¬ 
mental in parks, growing generally with a smooth 
stem to a height of from 100 to 150 feet, its wood 
being white, tough, and hard, in value next to 
that of the oak, and much used by wheelwrights, 
coachmakers, joiners, and turners. Among other 
varieties, the weeping ash, the curl-leaved ash, 
and the entire-leaved ash may be mentioned. 
The most important ones in the United States 
are the white ash, the black ash, the red ash, the 
blue ash, and the swamp ash. The white ash 
has the best wood, and is used for the same pur¬ 
poses as that of the common ash. The manna 
of commerce is a sugar from the sap of the 
manna ash, a kind of ash tree growing in South¬ 
ern Europe, especially in Sicily, whence the 
finest manna is obtained. 

Asp. [Fr., from Gk. aspis , an asp.] A small, 
hooded, poisonous serpent of Egypt and Libya, 
whose bite is often fatal. 

Asparagus. [Gk. asparagos.'] A plant grown in 
gardens for the sake of its young and tender 
shoots, which form a valuable and well-known 
article of food. The plants have erect, many- 
branched stems, and very slender branchlets, 
which are sometimes mistaken for leaves. 

As pen. [AS. Bot. name Papulus tremula.~\ A 
species of poplar tree growing in Europe and 
in Siberia. It has received the specific name 
tremula , from the trembling of its leaves, 
which move with the slightest impulse of the 
air. The wood is white, soft, light, and smooth. 
It is not good for fuel, but is much in use for the 
turning lathe, in making troughs, trays, and pails. 
The bark contains a bitter, alkaloid called salicin, 
and charcoal made from the aspen tree can be 
used in the manufacture of gunpowder. 

Asphalt or Asphalt/um. [Gk. asphaltos, bitu¬ 
men.] A kind of mineral pitch or compact 
native bitumen, found on the surface and shores 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


I 2 


of the Dead Sea, which is therefore called As- 
phaltites, or the Asphaltic Lake. It is found also 
in Asia, Europe, and America, there being a 
very extensive lake-like deposit of it in the 
island of Trinidad, West Indies. It is brittle, and 
of a black or brown color ; melts and burns when 
heated, leaving no residue.— Asphaltic cement 
is a composition of bitumen, pitch, lime, and 
gravel, used for forming pavements, and as a 
waterproof cement for bridges, roofs, etc. It 
has been of late years very largely used as a 
paving material in the United States and Eu¬ 
rope.— Artificial asphalt is prepared from coal- 
tar, lime, and sand. 

Ass. [U. asinus .] An animal closely allied to the 
horse, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of 
Tartary and other parts of Asia. It is smaller 
than the horse, and has long ears, an upright 
mane, a tufted tail, a streak along the back and 
across the shoulders, and gives a peculiarly 
harsh bray. The tame or domestic ass is remark¬ 
ably hardy, patient, slow, and sure-footed, and 
has become the type of obstinacy and stupidity. 
The skin is hard and elastic, and is used for 
covering drums, making pocket-books, parch¬ 
ment, etc. It is of asses’ skin that the Orientals 
make a kind of grained leather called shagreen. 

Asteroid. [Gk. aster , a star, and eidos , form.] 
The asteroids are a group of very small planets 
between the planets Jupiter and Mars. Ceres, 
the first known of these, was discovered on 
January i, 1801, the first day of the nineteenth 
century. Before the last day about 450 had been 
discovered. Nearly all of these are very small. 
Ceres is about 1200 miles in diameter, but many 
of them are only a few miles through. They 
may be fragments of a former planet, for they 
occupy the place in the solar system where, by 
the calculations of the astronomers, a planet 
should be. 

AstroEogy. [Gk. aster , a star, and logos, a dis¬ 
course.] The name of a system based on the 
science of astronomy, in which it is claimed that 
future events, and the coming fortune of any man, 
can be told from a study of the planets. The 
early astronomers were all astrologers, and 
watched the stars in order to predict the future 
from their movements. Astrology was widely 
believed only a few centuries ago, but now none 
but the ignorant have any faith in it, and it is 
professed only by rogues or fools. 

Astron'omy. [Gk. astron, a star; &ndinomos } a 
law.] In its widest sense, it includes everything 
that is known concerning the heavenly bodies. 
It treats of their motions, relative positions, dis¬ 
tances, magnitudes, mutual influence, constitu¬ 
tion, and physical condition. The history of 
astronomy dates back to very remote ages. The 
Chinese, Hindus, Babylonians, and Egyptians 
each possessed some knowledge of the science, 
and had made some progress in astronomical ob¬ 
servation many centuries before the commence¬ 
ment of the Christian era. It was first raised to 
the dignity of a science among the Greeks. The 
most eminent among ancient astronomers was 

588 


Hipparchus, who discovered the precession of 
the equinoxes and other facts of importance. 
Ptolemy, the next astronomer of note, founded 
the system which makes the earth the centre of 
the universe, around which the mighty circle 
of the heavens revolves once in twenty-four 
hours. Copernicus (1473-1543) showed the error 
of this theory, and made the sun the centre of 
the solar system, the earth and the other placets 
revolving around it. The science has been much 
advanced by Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, New¬ 
ton, Herschell, and many others of note, while 
the instruments of observation have increased 
in power until the universe has been explored to 
remote depths and hundreds of facts concerning 
its constitution discovered. Most marvelous 
among these are the vast number and immense 
distances asunder of the stars, and the wonderful 
discovery, which we owe to spectrum analysis, 
that our sun, and the fixed stars, which are the 
suns of other solar systems, are largely or wholly 
made up of the chemical elements found in the 
earth—such as hydrogen, iron, and others. 

AEmosphere. [Gk. atmos , vapor ; and sphaira, 
sphere.] The name of the great body of gaseous 
substance which surrounds the earth. The atmo¬ 
sphere consists essentially of two gases, oxygen 
and nitrogen, with a small quantity of carbonic 
acid and some aqueous vapor, with minute pro¬ 
portions of a few other substances. The vapor of 
water is of much importance in relation to the 
weather of any locality. The atmosphere being 
gaseous, obeys the same laws as gases under 
varying conditions of pressure and temperature. 
There is reason to believe that its extreme height 
may be not less than 500 miles, this result having 
been found by observations on the flight of mete¬ 
orites. Air being a fluid, exerts pressure equally in 
all directions. This pressure, or the weight of the 
atmosphere, at sea-level, is equal, to 15 pounds 
on every square inch of surface. It has been 
found that the average height of a column of 
mercury which will balance the pressure of the 
atmosphere is about 30 inches. (See Barometer.) 

At / om. [U- atomusl] The smallest particle into 
which matter is considered to be divided. Atoms 
are inconceivably small, and are supposed to com¬ 
bine into molecules—containing two or more— 
which form the smallest chemical particles. The 
atom of each chemical element has a fixed 
weight, and tables of their weights, as compared 
with the hydrogen atom, are commonly given. 

AiEger. [AS.] A tool for boring holes, larger 
than those made by a gimlet. It has a handle 
placed crosswise, by which it is turned with both 
hands. The pod-auger and the screiu-auger are 
the two principal kinds. The former has a 
straight channel or groove, while the latter has 
a twisted blade, by the spiral groove of which 
the chips are discharged. 

Auro / ra Borealis, [L,.] or Northern Lights. 

Luminous appearances which are seen in the 
northern quarter of the heavens. A’ muddy 
appearance of the sky in the direction of the 
north is the first indication of the approach of 
the aurora. This gradually resolves itself into a 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY 01 COMMON THINGS 


13 


band of a dusky hue, in shape like part of a 
circle, stretching from the north towards the 
west, with its ends resting on the horizon, and 
surrounded by a continuous luminous arch of 
transparent white tinged with green. The arch 
is in a state of continual movement, either rising 
and falling or swaying from east to west, and 
starting from it, streams of light of brilliant and 

variegated colors 
shoot up towards 
the zenith. The 
most reliable 
m easure m ents 
place the height 
of the aurora at 
from 45 to 100 
miles above the 
earth. It is now 
regarded as cer¬ 
tain that there 
is an intimate 
connection be¬ 
tween the aurora 
and the magnetism of the earth, this being 
shown by the fluctuation of the magnetic needle 
during an auroral display, and also by the fact 
that the top of the luminous arch is found to be 
near the magnetic meridian. The aurora has 
been frequently observed to occur at both 
magnetic poles of the earth simultaneously. 
Aurorae are more frequent in North America 




than in the same latitudes in Europe. Thunder¬ 
storms and aurorae are connected with each other 
—the former being characteristic of the tropics, 
and the latter of the polar regions. In Norway, 
Siberia, and Eapland auroras enliven to some 
extent the snowy landscapes and brighten the 
long winter evenings, and they furnish much light 
during the protracted nights at the Arctic region. 

Automobile. [Gk. autos , self; L,. mobilis , 
movable.] A self-moving carriage, distinguished 
at first as a horseless carriage. Steam and 
gasoline engines and electric storage batteries 
are used as propelling powers, and automobiles 
came rapidly into use near the end of the nine¬ 
teenth century. A great development of them 
seems probable in the twentieth century. 

Avalanche. [Fr. from L. ad vallem , to the 
valley.] A vast body of snow, ice, earth, rocks, 
etc., sliding swiftly down a mountain side or 
falling down a precipice. 

Axe. [AS.] An instrument of steel or iron, 
with a steel edge or blade, for felling trees, hew¬ 
ing timber, chopping and splitting wood, etc. 
The handle of an axe is called the helve, the 
thick metal part the head, and the hole for the 
handle the eye, and the handle is so fixed in the 
eye as to be in the same plane with the blade. 
The carpenter’s axe for hewing timber is heavier 
than the chopping axe, and has a broader and 
thinner blade and a shorter handle. 


B 


Baboon 7 . [Fr. babouin , and babines , large lips.] 
A kind of monkey with a short tail, very fierce 
and dangerous, and not so often tamed as others 




of the Monkey tribe. It is found in the hottest 
parts of Africa and in Siam. Its long snout or 
lips give its head somewhat the shape of a dog’s 


head. It lives chiefly on fruits, corn, and roots, 
and has large cheek pouches in which its food is 
kept until needed. The baboons are quadrupeds 
living on the ground, and running swiftly on all 
fours, while many of them live in herds, and 
are formidable to animals and property. The 
troops are led by patriarchs and guarded by 
sentinels, and fight fiercely when attacked. 
There are many kinds of baboon, but the best 
known are the pig-tailed, the dog-faced, and the 
mandrill. The nose and cheeks of the mandrill 
areornamented with red and blue stripes, audits 
appearance is made remarkable by other patches 
of gaudy color. 

BackgairFmon. [AS. or Dan.] A game of 
chance and skill played by two persons on a 
board with dice and fifteen pieces or “men” 
each. The board is divided into tables, each 
table being marked with six points colored 
alternately white and black. The moves of men 
are determined by throws of the dice ; and if a 
point is occupied partially or fully by the 
opponent, the man is set back. 

Ba'con. [Fr.] The back and sides of a pig salted 
The hair is singed instead of being scalded, and 
the meat is separated from the shoulder-blade 
and bones, and cured by salting and drying. 

Bacte'ria. [Gk. baktron , a rod or stick.] The 
name of a family of extremely minute plants, 
consisting of a single cell, and only visible under 
a high power of the microscope. They are found 
almost everywhere, and all fermentation and 

589 







14 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


putrefaction are due to them. While the most 
of them are harmless, aud very useful iu remov¬ 
ing decaying substances, others are highly dan¬ 
gerous to life, forming the “germs” or “mi¬ 
crobes ” of contagious diseases. This fact was 
first discovered by Louis Pasteur, and gave rise to 
the science of Bacteriology. The harmful bacteria 
enter the body of animals, multiply with extreme 
rapidity, and give off poisonous products or tox¬ 
ins which cause vio¬ 
lent and often deadly 
diseases. A m o n g 
these are yellow 
fever, cholera, small¬ 
pox, diphtheria, ma¬ 
larial and typhoid 
fevers, and various 
others, also anthrax 
aud other diseases of 
the lower animals. 
In the treatment, the 
use of anti toxins, 
prepared by inocu¬ 
lating animals with 
weakened bacteria, 
has proved of much 
service, but the sci¬ 
ence of bacteriology 
is so recent that 
much remains to be 
learned. 

Badg'er. [Probably from badge and ard, in refer¬ 
ence to the white spot on its forehead.] A car- 
niverous quadruped of the Weasel family. It 
has a broad, flat body, short tail, and long taper¬ 
ing head. It is a quiet, harmless animal ; but 
when attacked by dogs, turns on its back and 
defends itself with its teeth and claws. It bur¬ 
rows in the ground with its nose and fore paws, 
and forms a nest lined with grass and moss, from 
which it goes forth at night in search of food, 
which consists of roots, fruits, and small animals. 
It is found in Asia, Europe, and North America. 

Bag / pipe. A musical instrument made of a leather 
bag, filled with wind by a tube blown by the 
player. There are other three or four tubes, one 
a chanter with eight holes. G-clef is the only 
scale used. It is an ancient instrument, and was 
known to the Greeks and Romans. It is the 
national musical instrument of the Scottish 
Highlanders, and is used in the Tyrol and in 
other parts of Europe. 

Baking=Powders. Chemical substances used in¬ 
stead of yeast in bread-making, their action being 
to give off carbonic acid gas, which puffs up the 
dough, or causes the effect called “rising.” 
They are usually composed of tartaric acid and 
bicarbonate of soda. A chemical action takes 
place in these in contact with the wet dough, 
aud the gas is given off. Other substances are 
used, alnm being common, though it is thought 
to be injurious ; also acid phosphate of calcium. 
The use of baking-powders has grown enormously 
in recent years, aud yeast is little used. 

590 



DISEASE GERMS 


Bal'ance. [L- bis , double ; and lanx , a dish.] A 
machine used for weighing. The common bal¬ 
ance consists of a beam supported at its middle 
point, having two scale-pans of equal weight hung 
from its extremities. The object aimed at in its 
construction is to secure delicacy and rapidity in 
weighing. Of other forms of lever, the Roman 
balance, or steelyard , consists of a rod suspended 
from a fulcrum, so that the two arms are of un¬ 
equal length. The subsi., uce to be weighed is sus¬ 
pended from 

^_ the shorter 

j?. ’■ 1 1 1 ■■ 1 1 11 1 1 1 j arm.andamov- 

W 111a; s is made 

J§T| to slide along 

* 3 the longer arm, 

which is graduated to indicate quantities. This 
form of balance is in use at railway stations for 
weighing luggage and loaded carts. The spring 
balance shows the weight of a body by the extent 
to which it stretches a spiral spring. 

Balloon'. [Fr. ballon .] A large bag made of silk, 
and filled with light gas, coal gas being now gen¬ 
erally used. It rises in the atmosphere, because 
its weight is less than the weight of air which it 
displaces. A car, supported by a network at¬ 
tached to the balloon, carries the aeronauts; 
when they wish to ascend more quickly, they 
throw out some of the ballast, which consists of 
bags of sand ; when they wish to descend, they 
open a valve at the top, wdiich allow'S some of 
the gas to escape. Ascents have been made to 
determine the pressure and temperature of the 
air at different heights. In some cases balloons 
have risen to a height of five miles, and in one 
instance to seven miles. Balloons have been 
used as aids in war, and are now being applied 
in flying machines. 

Bal'sam [Arab.] or Balm [Gk.] A liquid aromatic 

, substance, of resinous character, which under 
the name of Balm of Gilead has long been 
famous in the East for its fragrance and medicinal 
virtues. It is the product of a shrub growing in 
Arabia and Egypt. The word balsam, when used 
alone, now signifies the balsams of Peru aud 
Tolu, a viscid and very fragrant liquid, obtained 
from two species of South American trees. They 
are used to flavor confectionery, also in per¬ 
fumery, and as stimulants and tonics in medicine. 
Balsam of Canada is the liquid resin of Abies 
balsamea, a species of fir. There is also a genus 
of trees iu the East Indies and Japan known as 
balsam, of which some species are of great 
beauty and are widely grown elsewhere. (See 
Gums , Resins .) 

Bamboo'. [Malay.] This is the giant of grasses. 
It is a most useful and graceful plant. Ils stem 
is hollow 7 , and at intervalsitforms joints or knots; 
and its flow 7 cr is enclosed in scales, as in the 
common grass. It grows everywhere in the 
tropics—in China, India, and the valleys of the 
Andes. There are many kinds—the most com¬ 
mon being from 40 to 80 feet long, and of any 
thickness up to 20 inches. Many stems rise 
from the same root or from the higher joints. 





































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


15 


Young shoots contain a sweet pith, and are eaten 
as asparagus. With the stem the Malay builds 
his house, and furnishes it with chairs, tables, 
beds and bedding of the same material. It is 
made into sails, cables, hats, paper, fishing-rods, 
pipes, bridges, flutes, handles of tools and wea¬ 
pons, buckets and bottles. 

Bana'na. [Span.] The fruit of a tree of the 
same name, belonging to the same family 
as the plantain. Its 'leaves are about 6 feet 
long, and its fruit grows in great bunches 
and is a most important food in hot countries. 
Its fibre is used for shoe-strings and for ropes of 
all kinds. The banana was probably first grown 
in the Bast Indies, but is now much cultivated 
in the West Indies and in tropical America. Its 
produce is enormous, being estimated on an 
acre as 133 to 1 of wheat. A plant of the same 
genus, in the Phillipine Islands, yields the well- 
known and very useful fibre named Manila 
hemp. 

Bandan / a. [Hind.] A red or colored silk or 
calico handkerchief with patterns or white spots. 
The handkerchiefs are pressed between hydraulic 
plates with holes or patterns, and the bleaching 
fluid poured into these holes passes through and 
produces the spots or patterns. 

Ban'yan. [Bot. name, Ficus Indica.~\ The sacred 
tree of India, and one of the wonders of the 
vegetable world. It is of the Fig family, and is 
called the Indian fig. Its seeds carried by the 
wind or dropped by birds are often deposited in 
the crowns of palms, and send down roots which 
become stems, in time taking the place of the 
palm. These grow’ to trunks from 60 to 100 feet 
in height, from whose branches in time, pendu¬ 
lous adventitious roots descend to the ground 
and in their turn become stems. This process 
continues until a single tree spreads over acres 
of ground and becomes a w’ood in itself. At 
Nerbudda, India, there is a tree w r ith 354 large 
trunks and 3,000 small ones, which is inhabited 
by great numbers of birds, fruit-bats and mon¬ 
keys, the latter eating the leaves as well as the 
fruit. 'I he Brahmins of India hold the tree in 
great reverence, and build their temples in its 
vicinity. 

Ba'obab. A tree of tropical Africa ; knowm also 
as the monkey-bread tree. Its size is gigantic, 
and it lives to a great age. Its trunk does not 
usually exceed 40 f.et in height, but its girth 
sometimes reaches 75 feet. Its branches are 
from 50 to 75 feet long, and touch the ground. 
The fruit is abundant, and of the size of a citron, 
its pulp being pleasant and slightly acid. The 
juice sweetened with sugar, makes a cooling and 
refreshing beverage. The bark yields a very 
strong fibre. 

Barberry. [L,. berberis.~\ A shrub which grows 
wild in northern Europe and Asia and in parts 
of the United States. In Italy it grows to the 
height of a plum tree, and is very ornamental 
when covered with its bright red berries. These 
are very sour, but make a pleasant drink, and 
good preserves and jelly. A fine yellow dye for 
leather is made from the bark and roots. 


Ba / rium. [Gk. barys, heavy.] One of the 
metallic elements, first isolated by Sir H. Davy, 
from whom it received its name. It occurs in 
heavy spar (sulphate of barium) and in baryta 
(a compound with oxygen). Some of its com¬ 
pounds are used in the preparation of fire-works. 

Bark. [Dan.] The exterior covering of the trunk 
and branches of exogenous trees, the endogens 
and the ferns having no true bark. Some barks 
are very thin and others thick ; those of the 
giant trees of California are two feet thick. The 
outer bark protects an inner bark. In many 
trees the outer bark is coarse, and has no life in 
it. The inner bark is fresh and full of sap. The 
sap which goes up through the w’ood of the tree 
from the roots to the branches comes down 
through the inner bark. Bark is useful for dye¬ 
ing and tanning leather, and certain kinds are 
made into corks. Quinine is made from Peruvian 
bark. (.See Cinnamon , Cork , Exogen.) 

Bar / ley. [AS.] A plant of the Grass family, 
cultivated for its seeds, which are a valuable 
grain used for food. It is hardier than wheat, 
maize, or oats, and is grown in northern countries 
like Russia, Norw r ay, Denmark, Scotland, ete., 
being found as far north as latitude 70°. Barley 
is a shallow-rooted plant, drawing its plant-food 
mainly from the surface layer by curiors root- 
hairs. Barley-meal is used for fattening pigs 
and cattle, and when boiled, horses also. Barley 
is mostly used in brewing beer and ale, and in 
distilling spirits. 

BaUnacle. A genus of ocean animals, called also 
acorn shells. These belong to the order of the 
crustaceae, swim when young, but afterwards 
attach themselves to rocks, ships, sea plants, 
etc., develop a shell, and become fixed for life. 
They gather thickly on the bottoms of vessels in 
the tropics and much impede tlicir speed. 

BarorrFeter. [Gk. baros, weight; and metron, 
measure.] An instrument for measuring the 
pressure of the atmosphere. Barometers are di¬ 
vided into two 
classes, cistern 
and siphon; and 
in each of these 
classes there are 
several forms. 
The simplest 
form of the cis¬ 
tern barometer 
consists of the 
Torricellian 
tube, with the 
addition of a 
graduated scale 
to sho w the 
height of the 
mercury col¬ 
umn. In ordin- 
a r y weather- 
glasses, the 
tube is bent 
the cistern is 
At the upper 


TORRICELLI* 

EXPERIMENT 


FORTIN* 

BAROMETER 


JE 


h 



round at the bottom, and 
an expansion of the tube, 
end of the tube is a fixed scale of inches, and 


591 

















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


16 


tenths of inches, beginning with 27 and end¬ 
ing at 31 inches. A vernier slides along the 
fixed scale for measuring fractional divisions. 
In the siphon barometer the tube, which is 
generally of uniform bore, is bent into the 
form of a siphon, the longer leg of which is 
closed and the shorter opened. Of the various 
forms of this class, that known as the wheel 
barometer is the most common for household 
use. I11 this the rise and fall of the mercury 
turns a small wheel, which moves a pointer and 
dial. The wide sweep of the pointer makes small 
changes in the height of the mercury very evi¬ 
dent. One of the important uses of the barom¬ 
eter is that of measuring the heights of moun¬ 
tains. The pressure of the air on the top of a 
mountain is less than that at the bottom by the 
weight of the column of air intervening between 
the top and the bottom. The difference between 
the readings of the barometer at the foot of the 
mountain and the readings on the top gives the 
means of calculating its height. The most im¬ 
portant of all the uses of the barometer is its 
employment for meteorological observations.— 
Aneroid Barometer. (See Aneroid.) 

Barque, or Bark. Any small ship, but especially 
a vessel, small or large, with three masts, the 



fore and main of which are rigged as in a ship, 
but the mizzen is rigged fore and aft. 

Bar / rel. A cylindrical receptacle made of grooved 
staves bound together by hoops, and with heads 
fastened by dowels. The staves arc planed, bent, 
and grooved by machinery. The name barrel 
includes keg, cask, pipe, hogshead, and butt. 
Over 1,300 millions of staves are made annually 
in the United States, chiefly of red and white 
oak and elm. 

Basalt/. [L,. basaltes.'] A rock of igneous origin, 
occurring chiefly in the ancient trap series of 
rocks. Basaltic rocks are composed of feldspar, 
augite, and magnetic iron, and other minerals, 
such as olivine. In color they are blue, brown, 
and black. They occur both as lava-flows and 
as sheets or dikes intruded between other strata, 
and are sometimes found in columns, which may 
be perpendicular or inclined, and of regular or 
irregular structure, as at the Giants’ Causeway 
in Ireland. 

59 2 


Base=ball. An athletic game, which takes the 
place in the United States that cricket holds in 
England. It is played on a square area, whose 
corners are called bases. The ball is struck by a 
bat, and the batsman seeks to run from his sta¬ 
tion to one or more bases before it can be re¬ 
turned by the opposing players in the field. The 
party making the greatest number of runs round 
the complete square wins the game. There are 
nine players on each side, including the pitcher, 
batsman, catcher and fieldmen. 

Bask/et. The weaving of wicker work is one of 
the oldest arts known to man. The shoots of the 
willow or osier are mostly used. Ash, elm, and 
birch shoots are also used. Baskets are made of 
a great variety of shapes and sizes, and basket 
work is used for various other purposes, such as 
screens, chairs and pony carriages. Boats have 
been made of basket-work covered by skins, and 
the ancient Britons used basket shields. 

Bass. [A corruption of barse .] A spiny-finned 
kind of perch used for food. There are many 
kinds, including the black and rock bass and sea 
bass of America, the common European bass, the 
striped bass, the white or silver bass of the 
American lakes, and the brasse or yellow bass. 
The black bass builds on the bottom a saucer¬ 
like nest, where it deposits its eggs, and where, 
when hatched, the fry are carefully protected. 

Bat. [O. E-] An animal with wings of a thin 
membrane of skin. The finger bones are very 
long and slender, and the membrane is stretched 
between them and extends from the arms to the 
legs. It is filled with nerves, so that blind bats 
can fly with as much confidence as those that 
have the use of their eyes. The Bat family is 
called Cheiroptera , or wing-handed animals. 
They feed on mimrte insects, and sleep during 
the day in old ivy-covered buildings, hollow 
trees or caves. When sleeeping the bat suspends 
itself with its head downwards, and hangs by 
the curved claws of its hind feet. If it alights on 
the ground, it has difficulty in taking to the 
wing ; but when hanging it unhooks itself, and 
its wings are at once free to strike the air. The 
collared fruit bat of India is from its size and 
color named the flying-fox, and feeds on fruit. 
Fruit bats suspend themselves by one foot when 
sleeping, tucking the other foot under the wing. 
Vampire or blood-sucking bats inhabit, tropical 
America. They bore little holes in the skin of 
their sleeping victim, or shave off a piece of 
skin. (See Guano.) 

Baths. [AS.] Places for washing in, either for 
cleansing the skin or strengthening the body. 
For cleansing, tepid or warm baths are most 
effective ; but being relaxing, they should not 
be used too often. The cold morning bath, 
either plunge, or sponge, is very beneficial to 
healthy persons. Sea-bathing is preferable to 
bathing in spring water. Turkish baths and 
electric baths are now in favor among rheumatic 
patients. Roman baths embraced swimming- 
baths, warm baths, baths of hot air, and vapor- 
batlis. Other baths, as Russian, mud, douche, 
etc., are medicinal or of the nature of luxuries. 














ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 




Battleship. This term refers to a heavily armored 
ship of war, carrying immense guns, which are 
placed in revolving armor turrets. One of these 
ships is like a floating fortress. They differ 
from the cruiser, which has thinner armor and 
lighter guns, and is built for greater speed. 

Bat'tery, Ley'den. An electric battery, consist¬ 
ing of a number of 
jars joined together in 
such a manner that 
they act like a single 
large jar. The jars 
are placed side by side 
in a box or tray lined 
with tin-foil, which 
thus unites their outer 
coatings with c a c li 
other and with the 
ground, while their 
inner coatings are 
connected by brass 
rods, joining toge hcr 
the knots of the jars. 
They are used to ac¬ 
cumulate a strong 
charge of static elec¬ 
tricity. The parts of 
ajar are : TT tin-foil ; 
SS sulphuric acid ; L, 
leaden rod, with upper 
part I of iron ; W wooden cover, closed by the 
cork C, to keep out the dust when not in use. 

Bay'onet. [Fr. bayonnette.~\ A sharp, straight, 
tapering steel pike or sword, capable of being 
fastened to the muzzle of a musket or rifle. It 
is named from Bayonne in France, where the 
first was made about 1640. 

Beads. [AS.] Perforated balls of glass, porce¬ 
lain, or gems w T orn for ornament; also a small 
ball for counting prayers. The glass houses of 
the island of Muraiio, near Venice, have been, 
from a remote period, a centre of the manufac¬ 
ture of glass beads. Upwards of five thousand 
people are there employed in this industry. 
Beads are much used for fancy work. “ Bugles,” 
or long beads, were formerly used, but now jet 
beads are common for trimming ladies’ dresses. 

Bea'con. A signal fire, or an erection at the 
entrance of a river or harbor, to give warning of 
dangerous navigation. Beacon fires are of great 
antiquity, and by their use news were quickly 
flashed from hill to hill across a wi le area. Iron 
pots to hold the beacon fuel were often placed in 
church towers. 

Beak. The point of anything ; the bill of a bird. 
The beak is a conspicuous feature in all birds, and 
consists of an upper and lower half. The upper 
half is commonly articulated with the skull in a 
more or less immovable manner. The parrot 
possesses this feature in its greatest perfection, 
but it exists in a less complete form in many 
birds. In no recent birds are teeth ever devel¬ 
oped, though rudiments of teeth have been 
recognized in some parrots, and fossil birds have 

38 


been found with well-developed teeth. The beak 
of each bird is beautifully adapted to its habits. 
Beaks of land-birds are hard and liornv—in the 
woodpecker like ivory. In many water birds the 
beak is rather of a leathery texture. The beaks 
of birds of prey which feed on flesh are strong, 
hooked, and pointed, those of herons and storks, 
which feed on fish, are long, pointed, and sharp; 
the beak of the parrot, which feeds on nuts, is 
adapted to crushing the shell and picking out 
the kernel; the beak of the duck is flat and 
broad, with comb-like fringes on the upper jaw 
which fit into the lower jaw. In the puffin and 
similar birds part or the whole of the horny 
sheath is annually shed. 

Bean. [AS.] The seed of various pod-bearing 
plants used for food. The two principal field 
beans arc the Scotch or horse bean, and the tick 
bean. There arc also many varieties of garden 
beaus, such as the long pod and broad Windsor. 
The bean is a valuable source of food for men 
and the domestic animals and is grown in most 
of the temperate climates of the globe, being 
used as human food in its unripe state and as 
food for animals when ripe. French or kidney 
beaus are grown for the green pods. Haricot 
beans, which are almost the same as French beans, 
are largely grown in France and Italy. The 
Lima bean is a variety of the pole-beau. 

Bear. [AS.] A large carnivorous animal, with 
a rough, shaggy coat and a peculiar gait. It 

walks on the 
sole of the foot 
(plantigrade.) It 
has five toes on 
each foot, and 
when fighting 
stands nearly 
erect on its hind 
feet, and strikes 
with the fore 
paws or clasps 
its antagon¬ 
ist forcibly. 
Though a flesh- 
eater the bear 
prefers vegetable food, and is fond of the fruit and 
roots of trees. Most bears are good climbers of 
trees. The bear partially hibernates, the female 
shutting herself up when with young, and being 
without food until the following .spring. The 
brown bear of Europe and Asia is sometimes 
exhibited as a performing animal. There are 
also the black bear and grizzly bear of North 
America, the sloth bear of India, the Syrian bear 
of Scripture, and the polar or white bear, which, 
with its yellowish fur, lives among ice, and is a 
good swimmer, and preys on the seal and walrus. 
The ant-bear, the sea-bear, etc., are not real 
bears, but belong to quite different orders of 
animals. 

Bea'ver. [AS. E. fiber .] An interesting rodent 
animal, valued for its fur. Formerly abundant 
in North America, it is now scarce, and found 

593 





















































18 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


only inhabiting the banks of rivers in wild parts. 
The hind feet are webbed for swimming, and it 
has a curious broad tail, flattened like a paddle, 
which is used as a rudder. It builds lodges of 
branches and mud about 3 feet high and 7 feet in 
diameter, and is very sagacious in making a 
dam or artificial bank of wood, stones and clay, to 
protect the lodges. The entrances are at all times 
beneath the water, so that the animal can enter 
or leave its home in safety. Its powerful teeth 
are its chief tools, and it cuts down trees of great 
size by gnawing a groove all round, so that they 
fall as it elesires, and it then cuts them into 
lengths. The food of the beaver is the bark of 
trees, and it lays up a store for winter by cutting 
branches and sinking them under water, placing 
stones on them. The fur of the beaver was 
formerly used for hat-making, but is now used 
for trimming ladies’ cloaks and for gloves ; and 
the material called castor is obtained from two 
small bags in the groin of the animal. 

Bed. [AS.] Something to rest or sleep on. 
Many substances have been used for this pur¬ 
pose, such as skins, heath and rushes, straw, etc. 
Feathers have long been used. The East Indians 
lie on the floor on light mattresses, the Japanese 
on matting, the Chinese on low bedsteads. In 
Europe, bedsteads are used with (wo mattresses 
—the upper being made of hair or down, and the 
lower of cotton. The best beds are made with 
steel springs, covered with a hair mattress. 
These are coming largely into use, for hygienic 
reasons, the feather bed not being conducive 
to health, while the close bed-curtain has been 
generally discarded. Folding beds, which by 
day look like a desk or other article of furniture, 
are now much used. 

Bee. [AS.] A family of membrane-winged in¬ 
sects, of which the best known are the honey or 
hive bee and the humble or bumble bee. The 
hive bee is a busy and curious honey-gatherer, 
which lives in communities or colonies. A 
colony consists of males or drones, females or 
queen bees, and workers. A hive of forty or fifty 
thousand busy workers is all under one queen 
bee. She lays all the eggs, and the workers keep 
close guard over her. They also are females, but 
as a rule lay no eggs. The drones have no sting, 
and neither work nor defend their nest. They 
number about one-thirtieth part of a hive, and 
are all slaughtered by the workers during the 
latter part of summer. When well kept, bees 
collect more honey than is necessary for tliem- 

s e 1 v e s 
and their 
young, 
and the 
excess i s 
the honey 
u s e d by 
man. The 
q u e e 11 
never 

works, but the workers gather the pollen and nec¬ 
tar from various flowers. (See Honey.) They have 
the sense of smell, for they scent the nectar or 

594 


honey at great distances ; and, like other in¬ 
sects, they have curious compound eyes, com¬ 
posed of thousands of small eyes. The mouth of 
the bee is well adapted to the work. It has a 
long lip and a much longer tongue. With the 
latter it probes the flower-cups and licks up the 
nectar which in its honey-bag becomes honey. 
In the hive, bees gather in thick clustersvJiaug- 
ing from the top, the first suspended by its fore 
claws, and the others holding to one another by 
the legs. I11 twenty-four hours small scales of 
wax appear on their under parts. The workers 
shake the wax from their bodies or pick it out of 
their pouches with their feet; they then take it 
in their jaws, work it over with saliva, and from 
it build cells in double rows. These cells are 
called the honeycomb. Artificial wax combs are 
sometimes used, and the bees fill them with 
honey. Pollen is also gathered ifor bee-bread. 
The worker scrapes the pollen and packs it into 
little baskets at the middle joints of its hind legs. 
Bee-bread is pollen mixed with honey for ordi¬ 
nary food and to feed the young. Cells are hex¬ 
agonal in shape, 
and so have 
strength and 
economize 
space. The cell 
of the drone is 
larger than the 
cell of the 
worker, and 
that of the 
queen bee is 
larger than 
either. The 
queen bee 
places a single 
egg in each cell 
—worker-e ggs 
in worker-cells, 
and drone-eggs 
in drone-cells. The workers seal up these 
cells, leaving little holes for air to enter 
when the young shall be hatched, while 
lioney-cells are always scaled tight to keep out 
the air. The eggs become grubs or larvae, which 
spin about themselves silken cocoons, and in 
twenty-one days after the eggs are laid, full- 
grown bees, both workers and drones, conic forth. 
The queen grubs remain still in their cells, and 
are guarded aud fed by the workers. The old 
queen, jealous of these royal prisoners, becomes 
excited, and a large number of bees fill them¬ 
selves with honey, and, joining the old queen, 
“swarm ” or leave the hive, and settling on some 
branch, are put into a new hive. 

The humble-bee (E. Bombus ), having a longer 
tongue than the honey-bee, reaches the nectar of 
the red clover flower, and, carrying pollen from 
stem to stem, enables it to bear seed. The New 
Zealand farmer tried to raise clover, but failed 
till humble-bees were imported. The humble- 
bee and wasp have communities like the honey¬ 
bee, but the number of the males equals the 
females, and the males work actively and defend 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


19 


the nest. Bees fortify their nests against the 
sphinx moth and other enemies. 

The carpenter bee is a solitary bee. She bores 
her nest in old wood in the shape of a tube, 
which takes a sudden turn and is continued down 
the trunk parallel to the grain of the wood. This 
tunnel she divides by sawdust partitions into 
cells, in each of which is placed an egg with a 
supply of food for the young larva. Targe quan¬ 
tities of bees-wax are used for making candles, 
and also for artificial flowers and fruit. 

Beech. [AS.] A tree of the Fagus family, grow¬ 
ing in Europe and America to a large size. It 
has a smooth bark and thick foliage, and bears 
triangular nuts which yield an oil. These nuts 
are used to feed swine. The wood is made into 
shoe lasts, mill wheels and tool handles. 

Beef. [Fr.] The flesh of an ox or cow when 
slaughtered for food. Beef contains fibrin and 

a 1 b u m e 11 , 
which are 
good flesh - 
forming ma¬ 
terials, a 11 d 
the value of 
meatiscliiefly 
due to the 
presence o f 
these two sub¬ 
stances. The 
111 cthods of 
cutting up 
an ox into beef vary in different countries. 
In this country it is cut up into 17 parts— 
(1) shin, (2) clod, (3) neck, (4) cheek, (5) chuck 
rib, (6) middle rib, (7) fore rib, (8) sirloin, (9) 
shoulder, (10) brisket, (11) thin flank, (12) rump, 
(13) aitch or edge bone, (14) buttock or round, 
(15) veiny, (16) mouse buttock, (17) leg. Corned 
beef is made by soaking lean parts in a pickle of 
saltpetre and sugar. 

Beer, (AS. beor; Ger. bier.] Under this name 
may be included beer, ale, and porter. The 
process of making beer is called brewing. 
Barley is soaked in water and kept in a warm 
place until it begins to sprout. During this 
process the starch in every grain of barley is 
changed into saccharine or grape sugar. The' 
sprouting is stopped by drying the grains, and 
the barley is then called malt. This done, the 
malt is crushed and boiled in hot water, which 
dissolves the sugar. The sweet liquid so got is 
called wort. Hops are added to the wort. They 
give an agreeable taste to the beer and help to 
clear it and to keep it. Next a little yeast is 
added which causes it to ferment. Fermenta¬ 
tion converts the grape sugar into carbonic acid 
gas, which escapes into the air, and alcohol, 
which remains in the beer. In 100 lbs. of beer 
there are from 4 to 8 lbs. of alcohol, \]/ 2 lbs. of 
dextrin, X A lb. of albuminoid matter, and from 
80 to 90 lbs. of water. 

Beet. [AS.] A biennial vegetable plant which 
produces an edible root the first year and seed 
the second year. There are many varieties ; 
the red is used for the table, the mangel-wurzel 


for feeding stock, and the white in making sugar. 
Beet-root sugar is equal to that made from the 
cane, and is made in immense quantities in 
Europe, where more than 4,000,000 tons are 
produced annually. This industry has been 
introduced into the United States, but has as yet 
made no great progress. 

Beetle. [AS.] Any insect of the order Coleoptera 
(or wings in a sheath), having four wings, the 
outer pair being stiff cases for covering the 
others when folded up, and defending them 
from hard substances underground. The black 
beetle is the common large cockroach. The 



curculio or weevil lives on fruit or grains ; tiger- 
beetles are striped ; carrion-beetles live on dead 
animals; the Spanish-fly is a bright-green beetle; 
stag beetles have long jaws. The turnip-fly 
or flea-beetle and click-beetle are destructive 
to crops. There are many thousands of different 
species of coleoptera, and they vary very much 
iu size and appearance. 

Bego / nia. [From Michael Begon, a botanist.] A 
species of plants grown as ornamental plants. 
The leaves are curiously one-sided and often 
exhibit brilliant colors. 

Bell. [AS.] A hollow metallic vessel shaped like 
a cup, with a wide mouth containing a clapper or 
tongue, and giving forth a musical sound when 
struck. Bells are made of various metals, but the 
best are made of an alloy of copper and tin. The 
large bell of Moscow is 19 feet 3 inches high ; 
the bell of Kioto, Japan, is 24 feet high. 

Belladon / na. [Bot. name Atropa belladonna .]. 
A herbaceous plant with reddish bell-shaped 
flowers and shining black berries. Both plant 
and fruit are poisonous, and used as powerful 
medicinal agents. Also called nightshade. 

Bel'lows. [AS.] A flat, round, double utensil, 
which by the rise and fall of the top part draws 
in air through a valve and expels it through a 
tube. Useful for blowing fires, ventilating mines, 
and filling the pipes of an organ and some other 
musical instruments with wind. 

Ben'zene. [Arab, from benzoin.'] A compound 
of carbon and hydrogen discovered by Faraday. 
It occurs amongst the products of the distillation 
of many organic bodies, but its chief source is 

595 















20 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


coal-tar. It is a thin, limpid, colorless liquid, 
emitting a pleasant odor. It dissolves easily in 
alcohol, ether, turpentine, and wood spirit, but 
is insoluble in water. It is of value from its 
great power of dissolving gutta-percha, wax, 
camphor, and fatty bodies. Impure benzene is 
used for removing grease stains from silk or 
woollen articles of dress. 

Ben'zine. A substance derived from petroleum, 
which is much used as a substitute for turpentine 
and for dissolving oils and fats. 

BerFzoin. [Arab.] A vegetable substance obtained 
by drying the juice of the benzoin tree. It is 
brought from Siam and the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago. It is used in perfumery and as 
incense, being fragrant and aromatic, and also 
in medicine. A compound tincture is prepared 
from it, known as Friar’s Balsam, and is used 
for dressing wounds. 

Berg'amot. [It. bergamotta ; prob. from Turk. 
beg armudi , a lord’s pear.] A tree of the 
Orange family, having a pear-shaped fruit, from 
the rind of which is extracted an essential oil 
with a delicious and much-prized perfume called 
oil of bergamot. This oil is used in perfumery 
and in making liqueurs. 

Ber'yl. [Gk. beryllosi] A mineral found in granite 
together with topaz. It is of alight-green color. 
It crystallizes in six-sided prisms; is very hard 
and difficult to fuse unless mixed with some 
other substance, such as borax; and consists 
chiefly of alumina, silica, and glucina. It is 
found in India, Brazil, Peru, and Siberia. 

Be / tel. [Tamil.] A climbing pepper, the leaves 
of which, mixed with lime and areca-nut, are 
chewed by the inhabitants of the East Indies, and 
the Malays. It stains the lips red and teeth black. 

Bevel Wheels. Wheels the axes of which arc 
not parallel, but inclined at a certain angle to 
one another. When the axes of the two wheels 
are at right angles they are called mitre wheels. 

BFcycle. [L,. bis, twice ; and Gk. kyklos, a circle.] 
A two-wheeled velocipede propelled by treadles 
attached to cranks or levers. It has become a 
favorite vehicle, both in Europe and the United 
States, from its rapidity of motion and the ease 
with which it can be propelled. 

BilFiards. [Fr.], The king of indoor games. It is 
played with balls and a cue on a table, with 
pockets at the sides and corners. The player 
seeks to impel his ball to strike or cannon two 
other balls, or drive another ball into the pockets. 
The French game is cannon only, and *is played 
on a table without pockets. The American 
game is played with four different colored balls. 
Pyramids is played with fifteen red balls arranged 
in a triangle, and a white ball; in pool there are 
as many balls as players. 

BFograph. [Gk. bios, life ; graphein, to write.] 
An instrument for the reproduction from photo¬ 
graphs of seemingly living forms. The photo¬ 
graphs are taken on a film in such rapid succession 
that every phase of movement of the figures is 
caught as a separate picture. To produce the 
effect of life the film with its successive pictures 
is run rapidly through a lantern arrangement, 

596 


they being thrown on a screen in such quick 
succession that they blend to the vision and 
produce a remarkable vivid representation of 
actual life movements. 

Birch. [AS.] A tree of several species belonging 
to the genus Betula —as the white or common 
birch—the most widely diffused, the dwarf 
birch, the paper or canoe birch, the yellow hircli, 
and the black or cherry birch. The common 
birch is called silver birch or lady birch ; it has 
small green leaves, elegant drooping boughs and 
silver-white bark, and grows on the bleak 
mountain side. From the bark of the common 
birch an oil is obtained which is used in the 
preparation of real and imitation Russian leather; 
also a resinous substance called birch camphor 
or betulin is got from the outer bark of the tree. 
The birch of Jamaica is a kind of turpentine 
tree. The dwarf birch is a mere bush, and is the 
last shrub found on drawing near the eternal snow 
of the pole. Dye is prepared from birch leaves ; 
and the wood makes good charcoal for gun¬ 
powder, and is used for smoking hams and fish. 
The wood is used by Cartwrights, upholsterers, 
and turners; and the bark being impervious to 
water, is used for canoes and for preserving roofs. 
An oil similar to winter-green oil is prepared 
from the black birch. 

Bird. [AS.] A winged vertebrate animal covered 
with feathers. Birds easily mount up into the 
air, their bones being of all animals largest in 

1 the quills of 
their feathers 
filled with 
air. T hese 
communicate 
with a series 
of sacs or air- 
, c h a m b ers 
connected 
with the 
lungs. I11 
b i rd s which 
fi y m u c h 
the neck 

is stretched forward like a wedge, the breast 
bone is extended like the keel of a ship, and 
the wish-bone, which is the collar-bones 
joined into one, is mu h developed. In birds 
such as the ostrich, which run chiefly, the wish¬ 
bone does not grow. When a bird perches and 
bends its knees, the weight of its body pulls a 
large ribbon-like cord in its leg, which makes its 
toes clutch the perch. As it sleeps its body falls 
forward; and the further forward it goes, the 
closer do the toes cling, fo that it does not fall 
off. The heart of a bird has four chambers, with 
perfect circulation. The temperature of the 
blood of birds is very high (104°) while that of 
the human body is 98°. Their bodies retain this 
heat through the non conducting nature of the 
down and feathers with which they are covered. 
Feathers (<7. v.) are modified hairs, and are shed 
annually. Birds arc then said to moult. The 
bones of the neck vary in different birds. The 
sparrow has nine, the swan has twenty-three. 


proportion to their weight, 












ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 

\ 


The necks of birds are thus flexible and strong, 
and their heads may be turned easily, or put 
under their wings when they go to sleep. The 
back-bone of a bird is inflexible, and practically 
one bone. The place of teeth in animals is 
taken in birds by the horny growth called the 
beak ( q.v .) Tropical birds have the most beauti¬ 
ful plumage. Birds usually migrate in flocks to 
warmer countries on the approach of winter, 
returning in spring, many of them being very 
swift in flight. All birds build nests in which 
their eggs are laid and their young hatched, the 
young being cared for in the nest until able to 
fly. Birds’ nests are made of a great many 
different materials—such as straw, sticks, hay, 
moss, leaves, clay, wool, hair, and feathers. 
The outside of the nest is rough and strong, for 
it has to keep out the wind and the rain. The 
inside is generally soft and warm, like a bed. 
The nests of different species of birds vary 
greatly, from the neat little nest of the wren, 
with a hole in the side for an entrance, to the 
hole iu a tree in which the woodpecker lives, the 
swallow’s nest of dry mud, and the eagle’s nest 
of woven sticks. Some birds build their nests 
in trees, some in bushes, some in hedges, some 
among the grass of the field, and some in the 
corners of windows and under the eaves of 
houses. Birds are classified according to their 
beaks and claws, which vary greatly with their 
habits. There are swimmers, waders, runners, 
scratchers, climbers, perchers, and birds of prey. 
(See Beak , Claw , Feather , Foot , Wing.) 

Bird of Paradise. A perching bird allied to the 
bower-birds. It has wonderfully beautiful plum¬ 
age and remarkable tail-feathers, which are much 
prized for ladies’ hats. There are twenty kinds. 
They live only in New Guinea and the adjoining 
islands. 

Bis'cuit. [Fr. bis cuit , twice baked.] Originally 
biscuits, which belong to the class of unfer¬ 
mented bread, were deprived of their moisture 
by being twice baked ; but although that process 
is no longer employed, the name is retained. 
Ship biscuits are made of wheat flour, from 
which only the coarsest bran is separated. Fancy 
biscuits are made from fine flour, to which eggs, 
are added with ginger, almonds, or other spices. 
(See Bread.) 

Bis'muth. [Ger.] One of the metallic elements. 
It is found in small quantities, in the native 
state, in Cornwall, France, Germany, Peru, and 
Siberia, but is chiefly prepared from its ores, 
which are found in Saxony and Cornwall. Pure 
bismuth crystallizes more readily than any other 
metal, and its density decreases under increased 
pressure. Fusible alloys containing bismuth 
have been to some extent used as safety-plugs 
for steam boilers, in addition to the safety-valve. 
The compounds of bismuth are also used in 
medicine and as pigments. 

BFson. A large animal of the Ox family, of which 
only two species remain, one in America and 
one in Europe. Its most striking difference 
from the ox is iu the hump behind the neck, the 


longer limbs and shaggy head and shoulders. The 
American bison, commonly but wrongly called 
buffalo, was formerly very abundant, but has 
been nearly exterminated. Of the European 
bison only one herd remains. The bison is about 
io feet long, 6 feet high, and is very strong. 

Bit/tern. A wading bird of the Heron family, 
now very scarce iu England. It has a booming 
cry, which when heard at night sounds so dis¬ 
mally that the bird has been named the night 
raven. The American bittern is called the stake- 
driver or meadow-hen. 

Bitu / men. [L,.] A combustible mineral which 
emits a strong odor when burning. It is sup¬ 
posed to have been produced by the action of 
heat on coal, and is essentially the same as 
petroleum and naphtha. 

Blackberry. The fruit of the prickly bramble 
bush, called in England the brambleberry. The 
plant is of the same family as the raspberry. It 
grows all over Europe and Asia, and is abundant 
in North America. In the United States are the 
high-bush and low-busli blackberries, and the 
creeping dewberry, all growing wild. There are 
also several cultivated varieties, bearing larger 
and finer berries. The fruit is eaten for dessert, 
made into jelly, jam, and preserves, and wine 
and brandy are made from it. 

Blackbird. A singing bird which is a species of 
thrush. In England it is sometimes known as 
the merle, and its fine note makes it a favorite ; 
but not with the gardener, who blames it for its 
fruit-eating propensities. In America there are 
the crow-blackbird or purple grackle, the red¬ 
winged blackbird, and the cow-bird. 

Black=lead. The substance called by this name 
has no lead in its composition, but consists of 
graphite or plumbago, one of the forms of car¬ 
bon. It gets its name from the mark it makes 
on paper, like that made by lead. The best 
known is found at Ticonderoga, New York, this 
being of almost pure carbon. It is used to make 
lead pencils, being ground and compressed 
into shape. It is also used for stove black¬ 
ing, mixed with clay to form crucibles, which 
have to stand great heat, and for other purposes. 

Black=snake. A species of snake common in the 
United States and one of the largest found there, 
measuring sometimes over six feet in length. It 
is of a leaden color, is very swift in its movements, 
and readily climbs trees. Though it bites readily, 
it is not poisonous, and is an enemy to the rattle¬ 
snake, which it coils around and crushes to death. 
It feeds on small animals, seeks eggs in the 
poultry-yard and milk or cream in dairies. It is 
easily tamed. 

Blank'et. [Fr.] A heavy, loosely-woven stuff, 
usually of wool, and having a nap, used in bed¬ 
clothing, as a robe, or as a cover for a horse. 

Blast=furnace. A furnace for smelting ores into 
which air is forced by pressure. The terms hot 
blast and cold blast are used to indicate whether 
the current is heated or not heated before enter¬ 
ing the furnace. 


597 




22 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


Blast'ing. The blowiner asunder of rocks or other 

hard material by means 
of explosives. In this 
work gunpowder is now 
largely displaced by the 
m ore powerful dyna- 
m ite or other newly- 
discovered explosives. 
Blasting holes are now 
largely made by steam- 
drills instead of by 
hand, and the electric 
spark is much used in 
exploding the charge. 
Some of the new ex¬ 
plosives are exceed- 
ingly powerful in their 
rending effect. 

Bleach'ing. [Fr.] The process of removing the 
color from textile fabrics and from many other 
materials used in the arts, such as oil, wax, and 
the various substances used in paper-making. 
The old method of ibleacliing was carried on by 
exposing the materials to the action of the sun’s 
rays, while they were kept damp by frequently 
sprinkling them with water; but since the dis¬ 
covery of the bleaching action of chlorine about 
one hundred years ago by Berthollet, a French 
chemist, bleaching has become a thoroughly 
scientific process. The two chief bleaching 
agents are bleaching-powder (or chloride of 
lime) and sulphurous acid. 

Blood. [AS.] The vital fluid of animals, which 
circulates through tubular vessels known as 
arteries and veins. This fluid is largely water, 
but contains the nutriment derived from the 
food we eat. The arteries carry the bright-red 
blood which feeds the system. The veins bring 
back dark-colored blood, filled with waste sub¬ 
stance from the body. Arterial blood is bright 
red and life-giving. Venous blood is black-look¬ 
ing, and destructive of life until purified by the 
lungs (g.v.) From the extremities of small arte¬ 
ries the blood enters the thread-like capillaries, 
where nutrition takes place. These capillary 
tubes convey the blood to every part of the mus¬ 
cles and bones, to the root of every hair and 
every part of the brain, and throw it into the 
veins, so that it may go back to the heart ( q.v .). 
Bio jd, though red in appearance, is a clear liquid 
without color, in which are particles or corpus¬ 
cles so minute that the aid of a powerful micro¬ 
scope is required to examine them. Some cor¬ 
puscles are red, others are white, but the red are 
so numerous as to tinge the fluid red. Oxygen 
from the blood unites with particles of tissue, 
and burns them, causing both the heat and the 
motion of the body. Exercise makes us warm, 
because the air is inhaled more rapidly, and the 
blood passes more rapidly through the lungs in 
contact with it, and so more oxygen is introduced 
into the body. The blood circulates through the 
body once in about two minutes, or about 12 
lbs. of blood pass through the heart every minute. 
Every time the heart contracts it sends a fresh 

598 


supply of blood to the blood-vessels, and the 
motion gives a pulsation to the system. This 
is distinctly perceived at the pulse in the 
w r rist, because there a rather large artery lies 
near the surface. The temperature of the human 
body is 98°, that of birds is 104°, and that of fish 
is 85°. 

Bliz / zard. A winter storm common on the wes¬ 
tern plains of the United vStates, its characteristic 
being a strong and very cold wind andr^fierce 
blinding snow. It usually appears in the Canadian 
plains, following a very low barometer, and 
spreads over a wide area. Blinded by the snow, 
many people lose their lives. I11 the bliz¬ 
zard of January, 1888, about 235 people perished. 
Blizzards rarely visit the East, but on March 12, 
1888, one occurred in the country about New 
York and Philadelphia which made all roads im¬ 
passable and stopped railroad travel for nearly a 
week. 

BIock=system. A system for the control of rail¬ 
road trains so as to avoid collisions. Block sta¬ 
tions are placed a few miles apart, connected by 
telegraph lines, and provided with signal boards 
or lights. The rule is that no train shall pass a 
block station while a train is on the section in 
advance, and until word comes back that the 
section is clear. Thus, if operated perfectly, 
there can be only one train on a section of three 
or four miles at a time, and collisions would be 
impossible. But men are not always to be 
trusted, and an automatic block system, in which 
the trains themselves work the signals, through 
electric attachments, is being introduced. 1 he 
block system was first introduced in 1851, and is 
now much more common in Europe than in the 
United States. 

Blow / pipe. A tube for blowing a jet of air into 
the flame of a lamp, a fire, or a gas-jet, in order 
to obtain a high temperature by rapid combus¬ 
tion. It is used in glass-blowing, in soldering 
metals, and in analytical chemistry and miner¬ 
alogy. 

Bluebird. A small song-bird very common in 
spring in the United States. It lays five or six 
pale-blue eggs, and hatches several broods in a 
season. 

Blue'fish. A large voracious fish, valued for food, 
and widely found on the American coast. It is 
called there the horse mackerel. 

B(Ua Constrictor. [L.] A large and powerful 

serpent of tropical 
America, some¬ 
times twenty or 
thirty feet long. 
It has a succession 
of spots, alter¬ 
nately black a n d 
yellow, along the 
back. It kills its 
prey b)^ winding it 
within its folds and 
crushing it by 
its_ muscular strength ; but other serpents in 
Asia and Africa which crush their prey are also 
sometimes called by this name. 



BLAST FURNACE. 
























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Bob'bin. [Fr.] A spool or reel, of bone or wood, 
with a head at one or both ends, and a hole bored 
through its length. It is used to hold yarn or 
thread in a shuttle, as in spinning or warping 
machines, looms, and sewing-machines. Bobbin 
lace is made on a pillow with bobbins. 

BocFy. [AS ] The material part of a living being. 
In the higher animals it is composed of a head , a 
central part or trunk , and four limbs. When the 
human body is dissected, or taken to pieces, 
there is found a hard part or skeleton, composed 
of about 240 bones ; upon these bones lie masses 
of red flesh (muscles), by which the bones are 
moved ; on the outside of all is a covering called 
the skin. The limbs are solid, but the trunk and 
head are hollow, containing certain organs, each 
of which has its allotted duty or function to per¬ 
form so long as the body retains life. The mus- 
. cles are called the organs of locomotion, because 
it is by their aid that we move about from place 
to place The chief organ in the head is the 
brain, contained in thebonyboxcalled theskull. 
The trunk is divided, horizontally, into an upper 
portion (called the chest') and a lower portion 
(known as the abdomen). The organs within the 
chest are the heart and the lungs. I11 the abdo¬ 
men are situaied the stomach , the intestines , the 
liver , the pancreas , the spleen , and the kidneys. 

Blow / ing=mach / ine. An apparatus to produce a 
blast of air. The blacksmith’s bellows is one of 
the earliest forms of these. Various machine- 
blowers are now in use, which give a very power¬ 
ful blast, some of them being rotary machines, 
others utilizing the steam jet to produce a blast. 
Another form of blower is the electric fan, with 
rotating vanes, used to keep the air in motion in 
stores or offices. Powerful fans are used for the 
melting of iron in cupolas, and air blasts are 
turned into smoke-stacks to make a powerful 
draft for locomotives, steam fire-engines, etc. 

Boar. The wild form of the common hog. It is 
a large and strong beast, of four feet or more in 
length, while the male has dangerous canine 
teeth. It hides by day and roams at night, doing 
great damage to crops and young trees. It is 
hunted on this account, and also for its flesh and 
bristles, but often proves a dangerous enemy. 
In some parts of India “pig-sticking” is the 
favorite sport. 

Bog. A tract of land covered with peat, which 
holds much water and converts it into a kind of 
quagmire. It is sometimes called Peat-bog, Peat¬ 
moss, or Moss, to distinguish it from other kinds 
of swamp. Bogs of wide extent occur in North¬ 
ern lands and they cover a considerable part 
of Ireland. Some bogs are more than 40 feet in 
depth, and are dangerous to traverse in wet 
seasons. (See Peat.) 

BoiFer. A vessel in which water is boiled to pro¬ 
duce steam, for engine purposes. It is usually 
a large, cylindrical receptacle of iron, though 
boilers are frequently made of tubes, where rapid 
steam-making is desired. The boilers in use to 
warm buildings are commonly made of wrought 
iron, though copper is sometimes used. 


BoonFerang. A peculiar missile used by the 
savages of Australia in war or the chase. It 
consists of a piece of hard wood of a bent form 
and about two feet long. One side is flat, the 
other convex in shape. When thrown it has a 
singular motion. Instead of going forward it 
rises with a whirling motion, then begins to go 
backward, a d strikes the ground behind the 
thrower. The Australians are very skillful in 
the use of this singular weapon, and can make it 
strike where they wish. 

BoiFing. When water or any other liquid is 
heated in the open air, its temperature rises. 
After a time bubbles of vapor are formed and 
reach the surface, and at this stage boiling or 
ebullition has begun. The heat converts the 
water from the liquid state into the state of gas 
or vapor, which rises in bubbles and passes off 
into tlie air as steam. The temperature at which 
boiling begins is called the boiling-point. Dif¬ 
ferent liquids have different boiling points,—that 
of water being 212 0 F.; of alcohol, 173.12 0 ; of 
mercury, 662° ; and of acetic acid, 243.14 0 . 
These are the temperatures needed at sea-level. 
At higher points, where the pressure of the 
atmosphere is less, the boiling point is reached at 
lower cemperatures. 

Bolt. [AS.] A strong pin of iron or other material 
used to hold something in its place, often having 
a head at one end and a screw thread c ,t on the 
other, on which a movable piece called a nut is 
screwed. 

Bone. [AS.] A firm, hard substance, of a white 



THli ULNA. THE HUMERUS. THE SCAPULA. 


or pale rose color, composing the skeleton or 
firmer part of the body. There are 246 bones 
in the human body. They give shape and firmness 

599 


































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


to the body, protect the organs from injury, 
and afford a solid place for the attachment of 
muscles. All bones are curiously fashioned, and 
beautifully adapted to their various purposes. 
Where the object is to protect, the bone is strong 
and thick, and offers the greatest resistance with 
the least material, or is so placed as to defend the 
organ. Those designed for support are thick 
and solid. Long bones are hollow, and contain 
marrow, which is composed chiefly of blood¬ 
vessels and fat. The other bones are spongy and 
lattice like inside, and hard on the outside. 
Bones are full of fine tubes through which the 
blood passes. The bones of the various animals 
vary in their texture, and are chiefly composed 
of phosphate and carbonate of lime and gela¬ 
tine. Bones are covered with a tough membrane, 
except at the joints, where they are covered with 
cartilage. When this cartilage is removed the 
bone dies. The bones of the trunk are the pelvis, 
spinal column (see Backbone ), the ribs, the 
breast-bone, the shoulder-blade, and the collar¬ 
bone. The bones of the arms are the humerus, 
the ulna, and the radius. The wrist has eight 
bones and the palm of the hand five. The bones 
of the legs are the femur, patella, tibia, and 
fibula. The ankle has seven and the body of the 
foot five bones. The skull is composed of a 
number of bones, which surround and protect 
the brain (q.v.). 

Bo / rax. A compound of boron with sodium and 
oxygen, is obtained chiefly from Tuscany, and 
is found also in Tibet, China, Nevada, and Cali¬ 
fornia. It is used in soldering gold and other 
metals, and in the arts as a flux. Dyers use it to 
give a gloss to silks. It is employed also in 
medicine, and as a cosmetic. It is valuable as 
an insecticide, being fatal to roaches, and is much 
used in preserving meat, fish, butter, and milk. 

Bore. [Icel.] A tidal flood which rushes into 
certain rivers of peculiar configuration, and is 
dangerous to shipping, as at the mouth of the 
Amazon, the Hoogly, and the Tsien-tang; also 
the flow of the tide in the Bay of Fundy and in 
Hang-chow Bay. 

Boul'der. [Dan. buldre.~\ A mass of rock chiefly 
rounded, that has been transported by the action 
of ice and other natural agencies from its native 
bed. Boulder clay is the unstratified clay 
deposit of the glacial or drift period, and often 
contains large numbers of boulders. (See Glacier.) 

Bow. [AS.] Anything bent in the shape of a 
curve, as a rainbow. A weapon made of wood 
or elastic material, with a cord connecting the 
two ends, by means of which an arrow is 
propelled. 

Box. [AS.] A tree or shrub which grows in 
various parts of the world. The common box 
has two varieties. The dwarf box is used as an 
edging for gardens. The wood of the tree kinds 
is hard and smooth. It is extensively used by 
turners, engravers, and mathematical-instrument 
makers. Also a wooden case or receptacle. 

Brace. [Fr.] A cord, ligament, or rope for hold¬ 
ing anything tightly. Any piece of matieral 

600 


used to transmit or change the direction of a 
weight or pressure. In the plural, straps to 
sustain trousers. 

Brad'awl. [AS.] A straight awl with chisel 
edge, used to make holes for brads, or thin nails 
with a slight projection at the top instead of a 
head. 

Brain. [AS.] The brain is the principal nerve 

centre, and occupies the 
whole cavity of the head. 
It is carefully enclosed by 
membranes, its upper part 
being called the cerebrum, 
and its lower part the cerebel¬ 
lum. The interior mass of 
the brain is composed of 
white matter, but the entire 
surface has a thin gray cov¬ 
ering. The surface of the 
cerebrum is made up of irre¬ 
gular rounded ridges or con¬ 
volutions. Th^ greater the 
number and depth of the con¬ 
volutions, the greater the 
amount of brain surface, and 
the greater the amount of 
gray matter which covers the 
surface. It is supposed that 
the gray matter increases 
with study or thought. A 
deep indentation extending 
from front to back divides 
the brain into parts, so that 
in reality the brain is double, 
corresponding to the pairs 
of the external portions of 
the body. The two halves 
are connected by a central 
mass of fibres. From the 
nervous mass'within the skull 
twelve pairs of cranial nerves 
extend to different parts of 
the head and face. From the 
brain the spinal cord extends 
downward through the spinal 
column to the lower extremity 
of the body. I11 every action 
which comes from thought, 
the mind, through the braip, 
with its outgoing nerves, 
directs the first steps, and the 
brain is regarded as the 
organ of intellect and the seat of the soul. 

Brake. [AS.] A mechanism for retarding or 
stopping motion through friction by the pres¬ 
sure or rubbing against wheels, or of clogs or 
ratchets against a rail, or of a pivoted lever against 
a wheel or drum in a machine. An air-brake 
operates by compressed air contained in an iron 
box on the engine connecting with the wheels of 
railroad cars. 

Bran'dy. [Ger. branntzvein .] A strong alcoholic 
liquor, distilled chiefly in France from wine. 
When wine is heated in a close vessel, the alco¬ 
hol arises out of it as vapor. If the vapor be 















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


25 


made to pass through a tube surrounded by cold 
water, the alcohol will be condensed to a liquid, 
which is brandy. 

Brass. [AS.] A11 alloy of two parts of copper 

and one of zinc. Prince Rupert’s metal, used in 
jewelry, has from 75 to 80 per cent, of copper. 
The alloy used in Dutch metal has 85 per cent, 
of copper. It is much used for machinery, tele¬ 
scopes, buttons, screws, etc. 

Brazil-nut. The fruit of a large tree, found on 
the Orinoco River, South America. The nuts, 
which are known commonly as Cream Nuts, are 
three-sided, with hard shells, and white meat 
which is very good when fresh, but soon spoils 
from its abundance of oil. The nuts are packed 
in a smooth round case, half as large as a man’s 
head, twenty or thirty of them in one case. 
They fall when ripe, rendering it dangerous to 
pass under the tree at that time. The monkeys 
are very fond of them, lighting for the nuts and 
throwing down the cases to break them. 

Brazil = wood. A red dye-wood, brought from 
Brazil, and used in dyeing silks, the dye being 
got from the wood by boiling. Brazil got its 
name from this wood, which the Portuguese 
called braza , or glowing embers, from its red 
color. 

Bread. [AS ] An important article of food made 
from the flour of wheat or other grains. In the 
process of bread-making from 50 to 60 per cent. 



BREAD-FRUIT. 


ot water is added to the flour, in which yeast or 
other leavening matter is mixed. The yeast 
causes the dough to ferment, in which piocess 
the starch of the flour gives off carbonic acid gas. 
This forces the dough to swell, and fills it with a 
great number of air cavities, making it what is 
called light. The dough is then divided into 
loaves, and again left to stand, and again it 
swells. The loaves are then put into the oven, 
when the moisture evaporates and they swell, 
while a yellow crust begins to form 011 the sui- 
face. They are baked in the oven till the bottom 


crust is hard. The acid is driven out of the 
dough by the heat of the oven. Aerated bread 
was invented by Dr. Dauglish of Maivern. It has 
no leaven, but has carbonic acid gas forced into 
the dough by machinery. The mixture and 
kneading are also done by machinery. (See 
Biscuit.) 

Bread-fruit Tree. A native of the South Sea 
Islands which bears a large, nearly round fruit, 
the size of a child’s head. The pulp, when not 
quite ripe, is white and mealy, and is baked for 
food. It has little taste, but is very nutritious. 
The tree has been introduced into the West 
Indies and South America. 

Break 7 water. A bank of stones or a structure of 
timber, built to break the violence of the sea 
before its entrance into a roadstead or harbor. A 
great quantity of large stones are usually sunk, 
and the bank which they form is built upon with 
large blocks of artificial stone. In some localities 
breakwaters of immense size and extent have 
been built. 

Breathing. The act of respiration. The organs 
concerned in breathing are the nostrils, the wind¬ 
pipe and the lungs. The wind-pipe is a stout 
tube, divided below into two tubes, one of which 
goes to the right and the other to the left lung. 
When the ribs are elevated and the diaphragm is 
depressed, there is a tendency to produce a 
vacuum between the lungs and the wall-chest. 
The air forces its way into the air-passages of the 
lungs, and expands the lung tissue so that it fills 
the enlarged space within the chest. This is in¬ 
spiration. When the ribs and diaphragm return 
to their passive condition, the pressure of the air 
ceases, and the elastic tissue contracts, forcing 



AIR-CELLS AND CAPILLARIES OF A 
HUMAN LUNG (MAGNIFIED). 

the air out. This is called expiration, and the 
whole act respiration. At every inspiration we 
draw into the lungs rather more than half a pint 
of cool, fresh air.' At every expiration we send 
out the same quantity of hot, foul air. Air that 
has been breathed once is found to have lost 
about one-twentieth of its oxygen, and to have 
gained as much carbonic acid gas. Such air 
is not fit to be breathed again. While we are 
in the open air there is little fear of our being 
compelled to breathe the same air twice ; but in 







26 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


rooms it is necessary to see that there are open¬ 
ings for the impure air to pass out, and other 
openings to allow fresh air to get in. If we 
reckon that we breathe fifteen times per minute, 
it can be readily calculated that an ordinary adult 
takes into his body from the air, by means of his 
lungs, i Y lbs. of oxygen daily, and gives to the 
air a rather greater amount of carbonic acid gas. 
The frog has no ribs, but simply closes its lips 
and swallows the air which is in its mouth. Tur¬ 
tles swallow the air in the same way as frogs. 
Fishes get all the air they need from the water, 
which enters freely at the mouth and passes over 
the gills, and escapes at the gill slit—the oxygen 
from the water being absorbed by the blood of 
the gills. A fish out of water dies for want of 
oxygen, which it can take from water but cannot 
take from air, and so it is suffocated by air. Lob¬ 
sters breathe only by gills, which are situated in 
a cavity under the body and attached to the legs, 
the action of the legs and of a spoon-shaped ap¬ 
pendage causing a current of water to pass over 
the gills,which absorb the needed oxygen. Insects 
breathe by air-tubes that pass through every part 
of their body, and open on the surface of the 
body in small holes, which exclude water or dust, 
but admit air. (See Lungs.) 

Brick. [Fr.] A mass of clay which is converted 
into building material by burning. The clay is 
dug up, exposed to the air and frost, and kneaded 
or mixed with water until it is a thick paste, and 
then moulded into bricks, which are called green 
or raw bricks. A brick-making machine will 
turn out from twenty to thirty thousand green 
bricks a day. These are burned in large ovens 
or kilns. The color of bricks depends on the 
proportion of iron they contain; red bricks 
have much iron, and cream bricks have little 
iron in them. Terra-cotta is a very fine clay of 
a delicate red color, made into bricks, urns, and 
statues. Bricks are used for buildings of all 
kinds, and are cemented by mortar made of sand 
and lime. 

Bridge. [AS.] A roadway over a stream, valley, 



or low ground. Viaduct is applied to bridges 
over which a road or railway passes; and aque¬ 
duct is applied to those for carrying a canal or 
602 


water. They are made of wood, stone, iron, or 
steel. Bridges are built in various ways. I11 shal¬ 
low water they are supported from the bottom, 
or stone piers are built, and arches thrown from 
pier to pier. Suspension bridges are held up by 
strong strands of wire stretched from shore to 
shore. A common way of building bridges now 
is by truss or girder work, the bridge being 
sustained by iron girders firmly bolted together. 
There are many remarkable bridges in existence, 
some of them of great length and width and able 
to support immense weights. 

BritarFnia Met/al. [From L. Britannia, Great 
Britain.] An alloy of tin, antimony, and copper. 
It varies in composition, but in general it 
contains from 80 to 90 per cent, of tin, with 
varying proportions of the other two metals. It 
is used for the manufacture of numerous articles 
for the table, also as a basis for electro-plating. 

Bronze. [Fr.] An alloy of copper and tin, with 
a small quantity of zinc added. Bronze is used 
for statues, ornaments, bells, cannon, coin, etc. 
Turkish gongs and cymbals are made of a bell- 
metal plunged while hot into cold water. Hard 
bronze is obtained from 7 of copper to 1 of tin ; 
while soft bronze, which bears rolling and draw¬ 
ing, contains 16 of copper to 1 of tin. Bronze 
for bells generally contains a little zinc and lead. 
Copper with 10 per cent, of aluminium yields a 
handsome golden yellow alloy, known as alu¬ 
minium bronze, and much in use for various 
purposes. 

Broom. [AS.] A low shrub with long, straight, 
green angular branches, minute leaves, and 
yellow flowers. The twigs, when tied together, 
are suitable for making brooms to sweep with. 

BrusseIs=sprouts. A plant of the Cabbage 
family, which produces in the axils of the up¬ 
right stems numerous small green heads or 
sprouts, each a cabbage in miniature. 

Buck / wheat. [. Buck, a beech tree ; and wheat.\ 
A plant of a family which includes knot-weed, 
called also Saracen wheat, with a triangular seed 
shaped like beech-nuts; when ground it is used 
in America for griddle cakes, in France for bread 
or as gruel. In England it is sown as food for 
pheasants, to decoy them from their 
covers. Its flowers yield excellent 
honey, of which bees are very fond, 
and it is often planted in the United 
States for this purpose. 

Bud. [AS.] The rudiment of a branch, 
a leaf, or a flower. In biennial and per¬ 
ennial plants buds are formed towards 
the close of the growing season in the 
axils of the leaves. Terminal buds 
are those at the end of branches, 
and lateral buds are those at the sides. 
Buds are usually protected from the 
frost during winter by a covering of 
scales. The buds of plants growing 
in tropical countries have no special covering. 

Buffalo. [Span.] A ruminant animal of the Ox 
family, found in Southern Asia and Europe and 
in South Africa. The buffalo of Asia is a native 



























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


2 7 


of the hast Indies, but has been introduced into 
other countries as far west as Italy. This animal 
is fond of water, and during the heat of the day 
lies in water sunk up to its nostrils. It covers 
itself with a coating of mud, as a protection 
against insects. It has long been domesticated 
and used as a beast of burden, and is the farming 
animal in the Phillipine Islands. The Cape 
buffalo inhabits South Africa, and is regarded by 
hunters as very fierce. Its horns are very broad 
at the base. Buffalo-horn is used for combs, 
drinking cups, and knife and fork-handles. The 
American bison is generally called buffalo. (See 
Bison.) 

Bug. [Celt.] A general name applied to various 
insects, as squash bug ; but specially also the 
bed-bug. Also, loosely, any beetle, such as 
lady-bug, potato-bug, etc. 

Bu'gle. [Fr.] A copper musical instrument for 
calling hounds or for summoning soldiers, first 
made from the horn of a wild ox. In bands the 
bugle is now .superseded by the cornet. 

BulPfinch. A European cage bird allied to the 

grossbeak, with the 
breast and neck red, 
It may be easily 
taught to whistle 
correctly musical 
airs 

Bullfrog. The 

1 irgest of the frogs, 
jk it being generally 
K 6 to 8 inches long, 
^ and 4 inches broad. 
^ It is very common in 
the United States, 
especially in the 
South, and derives its 
name from its loud call, which resembles the low¬ 
ing of a bull. 

Bunion. [Fr.] A swelling usually on the first 
joint of the great toe, caused by continued 
pressure of tight boots. 



THE COMMON FROG 


BurFsen BurrFer. This burner consists of an 
ordinary gas-jet over which is placed a metal 
tube about 5 inches long, perforated with holes 
at the bottom. When the gas is lighted, air is 
drawn through the holes, and mixes with the 
gas before ignition. From this air a plentiful 
supply of oxygen is obtained to allow complete 
combustion to proceed at once throughout the 
whole flame, and thus a smokeless, lion-luminous 
flame of great heating power is obtained. The 
burner is used for various purposes, such as fire¬ 
lighting, cooking, ironing, heating,and soldering. 

Buoy. [Du. boie, a chain.] A floating mark or 
beacon to point out a shoal or danger, usually 
chained to its place. Life buoy, a float intended 
to keep from sinking. Bell-buoy, a buoy with 
bells rung by the waves. 

Bur'dock. A rough wild plant, very common in 
Europe and the United States. It is about a 
yard high, has large coarse leaves and purplish 
flowers, and bears prickly seed burs, which catch 
on clothing, the wool of sheep, etc., and are 


thus scattered. The eaves and their juice are of 
use in healing burns or the itching effect of 
poison ivy. 

Bush'el. [Fr] A measure of capacity of 4 pecks 
or 8 gallons or 32 quarts. The English imperial 
bushel contains 80 lbs. of water at 62° F. The 
United States bushel contains 77.6274 lbs. of 
water at 39.8° F. 

Bust/ard. A bird, native to Europe and Asia, 
where it inhabits dry open plains. It has large 
wings, but rises in the air only at times. When 
on the wing, its flight is strong and sustained. 
It generally runs along the ground, and feeds on 
vegetable matter, worms, and insects. The 
Great Bustard has a long neck and longer legs, 
measures about 2 feet 6 inches in length, and 
weighs about 20 lbs. The Little Bustard is 
about half this size. 

But/ter, [AS.] A fat contained in milk, and ob¬ 
tained from the cream by churning. The cream 
is beaten about in the churn until the skin of 
curd which exists around every little ball or 
globule of fat is broken ; the particles of fat then 
stick together and form butter. The butter is 
then well washed in fresh water, to remove the 
small pieces of curd. A little salt is mixed with 
fresh butter; but if the butter is to be kept for a 
long time, much more salt must be used. Like 
all fats, butter is almost entirely a heat-giving 
and force-producing food. 

But/tercup. [AS.] A kind of crowfoot with bright- 
yellow flower. It is the cuckoo-btid of Shake¬ 
speare. (See Flower.) 

But/terfly. The most beautiful of insects, having 
wings covered with colored dust, which is really 
fine, shiny, iridescent scales. The butterfly is 
therefore called a scale-winged insect. Young 
caterpillars are hatched from the eggs of the but¬ 
terfly. In some cases these eggs are beautiful, 
shaped like vases and caskets. They are fastened 
to leaves, and the mother, during her brief life, 
seeks to deposit them on that plant which, after 
the caterpillars are hatched, will afford the 
proper food. The eggs of butterflies lie dormant 
during the winter, because the cold of winter 
would be fatal to the young insects, and the leaf¬ 
less trees would afford the caterpillars no food ; 
but the warmth of the spring soon develops the 
living embryo. The caterpillar is composed of 
thirteen rings joined together, and has six jointed 
legs on three of the rings behind its head, like the 
six legs of its mother. These remain with it 
through life, while the four pairs of legs on the 
rear part of its body disappear. The caterpillar 
crawls over the plant upon which it was born, 
devouring the green leaves. During this stage 
it is called a larva. After a time it ceases to eat, 
and becomes a pupa or chrysalis. Under its chin 
is a little spinner, from which issues a silken 
thread, with which it suspends itself, head down¬ 
wards. Others nang from the tail. The chrysalis 
remains as if dead, but is really feeding on the 
fat formed in the body of the larva; and in due 
time the imago , the perfect butterfly, comes 
forth, dries its wings, and flies away full grown. 
Butterflies fly in the daytime, and when they 

603 




28 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


rest their wings are raised over their back. The 
antennae stretch out nearly straight, and end in 
knobs. The under side of the wings often resem¬ 
bles in color the flower upon which the butterfly 
feeds. Conspicuous are the large round eyes, 
which under the microscope are found covered 
with numerous flat surfaces. These are called 
compound eyes, for they consist of a great num¬ 
ber of eyes crowded into a mass. There are about 


Cab / bage. [O.E., or L,. caput. ] An esculent vege¬ 
table with a foot-stalk, short, strong, and fleshy, 
which runs as a great rib to the point of the blade, 
while smaller ribs run from it to the edges. The 
common cabbage has a compact head of leaves, 
hence its name. It is one of the most nutritious 
of ordinary vegetables. Red cabbage is used as 
a pickle. In the Channel Islands, a tree-cabbage 
four feet high is grown to feed cattle. 

Cabinet. [Fr.] A safe place for jewels or paper ; 
usually a set of drawers or a cupboard closed with 
doors. Cabinet. A private room in which consul¬ 
tations are held. Monarchs lormerly consulted 
with their councillors in cabinets, hence the 

name became applied to the 
board of councillors. 
In the United States it is ap¬ 
plied to the heads of the gov¬ 
ernment departments who act 
as adviser of the President. 

Ca / ble. [Fr.] A strong chain 
or rope for fastenings ships or 
other purposes. Telegraph 
cable is a rope of gutta-percha, 
yarn, and iron wire, in the 
centre of which are copper 
conducting wires to be laid 
underground or under the 
sea. The largest chain 
cable, with links 2^ inches 
thick, was made especially 
for the steamship Great Eastern. 

Cac / tus. [L,.] A kind of plant like the prickly 
pear, found in tropical America, usually with 
leafless stems and branches, and sometimes clus¬ 
tered thorns. (See Cochineal.) 

Cad'dy, [K. Ind. ; from Malay, kali , a weight of 
1lbs.] A small box for holding tea. 

Caffe'in. [Fr.] A white, bitter, crystallizable sub¬ 
stance obtained from coffee. 

Caisson. [Fr.] An apparatus used in laying the 
foundation of bridges under water. One form 
is an inverted water-tight hollow box with iron- 
bound edges, in the bottom of which some 
masonry has been constructed. The weight of 
the masonry forces the caisson into the sand and 
mud at the bottom, and air, under pressure, is 
then forced in, driving out the water and allow¬ 
ing the workmen to enter through the air-tight 

^ locks. 

Cake. [Scand., or L,. coquere, to cook.] A mass 
of dough, made palatable by the addition of 
sugar, eggs, fruit, and other materials, and baked 
604 



five thousand kinds of butterflies. They are great 
rovers, and having no homes they flit about 
among the most brilliant but shallow blossoms’ 
perfecting their seeds. 

Buz/zard, [Fr.] A bird of the Falcon family. 
There are various kinds of this bird of prey—the 
common buzzard, the rough-legged buzzard, the 
honey buzzard, the moor buzzard, the bald buz¬ 
zard or osprey, the carrion buzzard- and others. 



in the oven ; or made into a batter and baked on 
a griddle. It differs in these respects from bread. 
Also the compressed seeds of flax, rape, and 
cotton. These contain much oil, which is 
extracted by strong pressure, leaving a compact 
cake of about half an inch in thickness. Oil 
cake is used as food for animals, half-a-pound a 
day being sufficient for a sheep and five pounds 
for a bullock. It is used in addition to grass, 
hay, or other food. 

CaFabash. [Span.] A tree found in tropical 
America, the gourd-like fruit of which has a 
soft pulp, and its shell is made into drinking- 
cups and bottles. 

CaFamus. [U. Acorns calamus .] The Sweet- 
Flag, a plant found in ditches and by the side of 
ponds in Asia, Europe, and North America. The 
root-stock yields an aromatic stimulant and tonic, 
much used as a medicine in the East. It is also 
made into confections and used in liquors in 
Germany. Some persons chew it to clear the 
voice and sweeten the breath. 

CaPcium. One of the metallic elements, whose 
oxide is the abundant and very useful lime. It 
occurs abundantly as limestone, and in its 
crystallized form as marble. Calcium carbonate 
is so abundant in nature that it is found in most 
natural waters, in which it is dissolved and 
carried to the sea. Sulphate of lime is a common 
constituent in what is known as hard water, and 
is found in sea water. I11 its solid state it is 
known as Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris. 

CaFculating Machine. An instrument in which, 
by the movement of keys, acting upon an 
intricate mechanism, arithmetical calculations 
may be made. The Babbage machine was 
capable of performing remarkable operations, 
but was of no practical use. There are simpler 
instruments now in use which add, subtract, 
multiply, and divide with wonderful speed and 
accuracy. 

Calf. [AS.] The young of the cow and of some 
animals ; also leather for bookbinding made from 
calf-skin. The flesh of calves is called veal. 
Calf-foot jelly is the gelatine of the feet of the 
calf, extracted by boiling and flavored with sugar 
or essences. 

CaFico. [E. Ind.] Fine white cotton cloth, with 
special names, as super calicoes, shirting calicoes, 
unbleached calicoes. Also cotton (q.v.) cloth 
with a figured pattern. 

CaFipers. A kind of compasses with curved legs 
for measuring the diameter of round bodies. 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


29 


# 


Cal'omel. [Gk.] A compound of chlorine and 
mercury, which is found native as horn quick¬ 
silver in Bavaria, Bohemia, and Spain. It is of 
great value in medicine, being one of the mildest 
and most frequently used of all the preparations 
of mercury. It is used for the liver, as an oint¬ 
ment, and in producing salivation. 

Calor'ic Engine. A form of air engine, invented 
by John Ericsson, which is in considerable use 
for light machinery. In its working parts it 
resembles the steam engine, but is operated by 

^ the expansive power of hot air instead of steam. 

Calyx. [Gk.] The outer covering of a flower. 
It is usually green and leafy, but in such flowers 
as the anemone is delicate and resembles the 
petals. Each leaf of the calyx is a sepal. (See 
Flower .) 

Cam. [Dan.] A turning or sliding piece of 
machinery, which, by the side of its face ora 
groove on its surface, changes the motion of 
another piece against which it acts. Cams are 
used in the pin-machine, the sewing-machine, 
and others where varied motion is required. 

CarrCbric. A kind of hue thin white linen, first 
made at Cambray in Flanders. Cambric muslin 
is thin white cotton. 

Cam'el. [L,. camel us.\ A most useful ruminating 
animal, which for centuries has been used as a 
beast of burden or ship of the desert on the 

sandy plains 
of Africa and 
Arabia. It is 
well adapted 
by nature for 
life on the 
desert. It can 
go for many 
days without 
water, being 
provided with 
a remarkable 
arrange ment 
of cells in its 
stomach or 
paunch which 
it fills with water, and keeps as a store for future 
use. Its two long toes rest on a broad, horny 
cushion, which enables it to walk without sinking 
in the sand, and its nostrils can be closed at will 
to shut out the fine dust of the sand-storms. The 
African or Arabian camel has one hump, and is 
called the dromedaty. The Bactrian camel of 
Central Asia has two humps. The hump is not 
a part of the skeleton, but is a mass of fat which 
slowly lessens when the animal is on long jour¬ 
neys and food is scarce, it being consumed as 
nutriment. The camel is about six feet in height, 
and not very rapid in speed. It is very useful to 
the Arab, conveying himself and his belongings 
on a journey, and yielding him flesh and milk 
for food, hair for weaving into a covering, and 
hides for sandals and saddles. Camel hair is used 
for painters’ brushes. 

Camel'lia. [Probably named after Kamel, a 
Jesuit, who first brought the plant from the East.] 
A11 Asiatic shrub with shining green leaves and 


showy flowers. In China oil is pressed from its 
seeds. 

Camel'opard. [Gk. kainelos , camel ; and pardos , 
a leopard.] An old name of the giraffe, arising 
from the idea that it was an offspring of the 
camel and the leopard. 

Cam'eo. [Ital.] A precious stone, as an onyx or 
sardonyx, having a figure carved in relief on the 
surface. 

Cam'era Obscu'ra. [L,.] An optical instrument. 
In its simplest form it consists of a rectangular 
box fitted at one end with a lens and at the other 



end with a plane mirror, inclined at an angle of 
45 0 to the horizon. When the lens is directed 
to any object, the rays of light, after passing 
through the lens, are reflected from the mirr r, 
and form an image on a plate of glass at the top 
of the box, where they may be observed and 
sketched. Instead of the box it is usual to have 
a kind of tent surrounded with curtains to keep 
out the light. There are various forms of the 
camera now in use for taking photographic nega¬ 
tives, the photographic camera being an adapta¬ 
tion of the camera obscura, which is fitted at the 
back for the introduction of a sensitized plate or 
film, so as to receive the image of an object or 
scene in front of the lens. 

Cam'omile. [Gk. chamai , on the ground ; and 
melon , an apple.] A bitter herb used as a medi¬ 
cine. Its flowers have a strong and fragrant 
smell, with an aromatic taste. Its volatile oil is 
used as a carminative. 

Cain / phor. A white resinous substance existing 
in many plants, but mainly obtained from the 
camphor laurel, grown in China, Formosa, and 
Japan. The Borneo or Sumatra camphor, highly 
esteemed in China, is obtained from a lime tree in 
Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula. 
Camphor has an aromatic odor and a strong, 
unpleasant taste, and is soluble in alcohol and 
oil. Spirits of camphor is camphor dissolved in 
spirit. When this solution is poured into water, 
the camphor reappears in white flakes. Cam¬ 
phor is used as a medicine, and enters largely 
into varnishes used by painters. It is also used to 
kill moths and other insects among furs or 
woolen cloths. For a further important use of it 
see Celluoid. 

Canal'. [L,. canalis , a pipe.] A waterway made for 
boats or ships or for irrigation. The barrier which 
confines the water is called the weir or guard- 
lock, and the enclosure with gates at each end to 
raise or lower boats as they pass from one level to 

605 



















































3 ° 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 



another iscalled the lift-lock. Most famous among 
canals is the Suez Canal,which wasopenedNovem- 
ber 17, 1869. It is 87 miles long—66 miles actual 
canal and 21 miles lake—connecting the Mediter¬ 
ranean and the Red Seas. An effort to connect 
the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans by a canal 
across the Isthmus of Panama has been made, 
but as yet without success, and it is proposed to 
make a similar canal across Nicaragua by the Uni¬ 
ted States government. There are thousands 
of miles of canals in Europe and America. 

Cana / ry. A cage bird about the size of a sparrow, 
which is found wild in the Madeira and the 
Canary Islands. Great quantities of tame birds 
are raised in Germany. In its wild state it is 
generally of a dusky gray color ; but tame birds 
are of very many different colors, those with 
white or yellow feathers being most valued. The 
tame bird is a sweet singer, some having the sky¬ 
lark, others the woodlark, and others the night¬ 
ingale note. It is the favorite among cage birds. 

CarFdle. [U. candela , a (white) light made of wax 
or tallow ; from candere , to be white.] A twist 
of threads surrounded by tallow or wax which 

gives light when lit. Common 
candles are made of tallow. 
Tumps of fat from sheep or 
cattle are first melted in large 
pans, and then boiled with 
water. From the fat or tallow 
so obtained we can make the 
candles called “dips,” by dip¬ 
ping skeins of cotton (wicks) 
into the melted tallow. The 
candles called ‘ ‘ moulds ’ ’ are 
made by running the tallow 
into metal tubes, the wick 
having been first stretched 
down the middle of the tube. 
Wax candles are made from 
the wax produced by bees. 
Stearin candles are made from 
a hard kind of fat called 
stearin, which can be ex¬ 
tracted from t a ll° w - Com¬ 
posite candles 
consist of a 
mixture of 
tallow and 
stearin. Par¬ 
affin candles 
N are made of 
v solid paraffin, 
(|,\ which, like 
' v paraffin oil, is 
prepared from 
a mineral sub¬ 
stance that 
oozes out of or 
can be ob¬ 
tained by heating certain rocks called bitu¬ 
minous shales. (See Smelt.) 
kine Sugar. The variety of sugar obtained from 
the sugar-cane and the sugar-beet, as distin¬ 
guished from grape-sugar , which is obtained 
from maize and some other plants- (See Sugar.) 


SUGAR CANE. 


606 


Canister. [L,. canistrum.'] A basket of reeds, 
or a small box for holding tea or coffee.— Canis¬ 
ter shot , or case shot, a kind of shot with a 
number of lead or iron balls enclosed in a case 
which bursts when fired. • 

CarUnel Coal. A hard, jet-black variety of coal 
which burns with a bright white flame. The 
gas yielded by this coal has nearly three-times 
the illuminating power of that obtained from 
common coal. It is hard enough to be cut and 
^polished like jet, and is sometimes made into 
trinkets. In Scotland it is known as parrot coal. 

T. canna , reed, pipe, 
tube.] Apiece of 
ordnance o r artil¬ 
lery. The large 
cannon now in use 
consists of a forged 
steel tube strength¬ 
ened with massive 
steel rings shrunk 
upon it. Howitzers 
and mortars are 
sometimes called 
cannon. Cannon 
are distinguished by 
the weight of the 
ball, or the diameter of their bore. Some of the 
great rifled guns now in use can send a heavy 
ball a distance of 10 or 12 miles. 

Canoe 7 . [Span. canoa.~\ A boat made of the 
trunk of a tree hollowed, or of bark or skins. 
It is propelled by a paddle or sails, and has no 
rudder. 

CarFteen. [F. cantine, bottle case.] A refresh¬ 
ment house in a fort or barracks for the use of 
soldiers, where they can purchase food and 
other necessaries, and intoxicating liquors under 
certain restrictions. A vessel,' usually of tin, 
used by soldiers, in carrying water or other 
liquids. 

Can'vas. [Fr. from Gk. kannabis, hemp.] A 
coarse cloth for sieves, sails, and sacks, made 
from hemp, flax, or cotton , the cloth 011 which 
a picture is painted. 

Caout/chouc. [Ind. pronounced koo'chook.'] The 
elastic gum of several trees in South America, 
Africa, and Asia. It is impervious to liquids 
and gases, and is much used in the arts and manu¬ 
factures. (See India-rubber.) 

Capercailzie. [Celt.] A kind of large grouse 
with a fine flavor found in Scotland and in 
Northern Europe,especially Norway and Sweden, 
and known under the name ‘ ‘cock of the woods. ’ ’ 

Capillary. [L,. capillus , a hair.] A tube with a 
hair-like bore ; a minute blood-vessel. 

Capillary Force. The force by which water 
ascends in wood, sponge, blotting-paper, and 
other porous bodies. By the same action the 
flame of a lamp is fed with oil. The wick is a 
bundle of threads whose surfaces are nearly in 
contact, and the oil rises between them in the 
same way as if they were narrow tubes. Water 
is supposed to rise from reservoirs and springs 
below the surface of the ground to the roots or 
plants in the same way as it rises in fine tubes. 


CaiFnon. [Fr. canon ; from 



CAPITAL. 















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


31 


Capillary action seems to be due to an attraction 
between water and the surfaces of solid sub¬ 
stances. 

Capital. [Fr.] The head of a column, and con¬ 
sisting of abacus, bell, and necking. The Greeks 
used three orders—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. 
I he Romans added Tuscan and Composite. 
Other orders in use are Byzantine, Moorish, and 
Gothic. Also the seat of government of a 
state or a nation. Capital letters, heading let¬ 
ters, used at the beginning of sentences, etc. 

Capitol. Originally the great national temple of 
Rome. A modern Capitol now stands on its site. 
The name has been applied to the building in 
which the United States Congress holds its 
sessions; also to the legislative halls of the 
States. 

Capstan. [Fr.] A vertical drum revolving on 
an upright spindle with a drum-head, in which 
are sockets for bars or levers. It is used on 
board ship to raise weights by means of a rope, 
and is worked either by steam power or by men 
walking round pushing on levers in the sockets. 

Cap'sule. [U. capsa , a chest.] A seed-vessel of 
a plant containing many parts or carpels, as the 
flax, the poppy, and the lily; a metallic seal or 
cover for closing a bottle; also in medicine a 
gelatinous envelope in which bitter doses are 
enclosed. 

Car. [Fr.] A frame on wheels for carrying 
persons or loads. In the United States the word 
is applied to vehicles used on railroads or for 
street travel. Railroad cars are called carriages 
in England, except Pullman cars, train cars, etc., 
introduced from America. 

Car'at. [Fr.] A weight of 3*4 grains Troy, 
divided into four parts or carat grains, for 
weighing gold, diamonds, or precious stones; 
the twenty-fourth part of any quantity of pure 
gold. Goldsmiths’ standard is 22 carats, which 
consists of 22 parts of gold, 1 of copper, and 1 
of silver. 

Car'avan. [Per. karwan .] A company of mer¬ 
chants, pilgrims, or travelers, joined together 
for mutual safety and protection, in Asia and 
Northern Africa, with camels as the usual means 
of conveyance. A large covered carriage for 
conveying passengers or w'ild beasts or furniture. 
Shortened into van. 

Car / away. [Bot. name Carum carvi .] The seed 
of a plant like a carrot, of the Parsley order, 
grown in Holland ; used in confectionery and as 
a carminative. 

Carbide of Calcium. A product of the electric 
furnace, consisting in a compound of calcium 
and carbon. It is of interest from the fact that 
when met it yields in abundance acetylene gas, 
remarkable for its illuminating powers. 

Carbol'ic Acid. An organic compound derived 
from coal tar. When pure it is a white crystal¬ 
line substance, possessing a burning taste and 
the odor of creosote. In the crude form it is 
largely used as a disinfectant. It is also applied 
externally to wounds and abscesses after they 
have been opened. Taken internally, it acts as 


an irritant poison, but in small quantities it is 
used as a medicine. Drains and sewers are 
sometimes flushed with solution of caroolic acid 
in order to remove infectious matter. 

Car'bon. A non-metallic element known only in 
in the solid form and very widely distributed. 
It enters into the composition of all organic 
structures, whether animal or vegetable. It is 
found in all theanimal tissues, and, with oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur, makes up the 
whole plant—wood, leaves, and flowers. All 
vegetable products—such as sugar, starch, gum- 
arabic, alcohol, oils—consist largely of carbon 
combined with oxygen and hydrogen. Carbon is 
the chief constituent of coal; and coal, when 
heated so as to expel its gases, is turned into 
coke, which is also carbon. Carbon is also 
found under the form of what is often named 
blacklead, but which is properly called plumbago 
or graphite. This is the substance from which 
pencils are made. The diamond, though widely 
different in appearance from all the other forms, 
is pure carbon. 

Carbon'ic Acid. One of the products of the 
combustion of carbon, also known as carbon 
dioxide. When coal or wood burns brightly in 
the fire, carbonic acid is produced, and it may 
be prepared artificially by acting on chalk or 
marble with hydrochloric acid. The air we 
breathe contains oxygen, which enters the blood, 
combines with the waste carbon of the tissues, 
and is breathed out again as carbonic acid. This 
substance is given out in large quantities from 
volcanoes, and from the ground in volcanic 
regions. It is also produced during the ferment¬ 
ation of wine and beer. It is one of the perma¬ 
nent gases of the atmosphere, in the proportion 
of about 4 volumes in 10,000. Plants derive it 
from the atmosphere and supply it to animals. 

Carboniferous Sys'tem. In geology the system 
of Primary rocks overlying the Devonian. It 
takes its name from the extensive coal-beds 
which it contains. In the system there are two 
well-marked sub-divisions—the lower section 
consisting of carboniferous limestone, and the 
upper, of the coal-bearing division of the system 
known as the coal-measures. These comprise 
sandstones, dark shales, and seams of coal. The 
flora of the Carboniferous period consisted al¬ 
most entirely of flowerless plants, such as 
ferns; and among the fauna, fossils of true air- 
breathing animals and various insects are found. 
The system is very largely developed in the 
the United States. (See Coal.) 

Carborun'dum. A compound of carbon and sili¬ 
con, produced in the electric furnace. It was 
discovered in 1890 in an effort to make artificial 
diamonds, in which bright blue crystals hard 
enough to cut precious stones were formed. 
When powdered it is superior as an abrasive to 
emery and even to diamond dust. It is now 
largely produced at Niagara Falls, and widely 
used as a sharpening agent. 

Car'buncle. [U. carbunculus , a small coal.] A 
precious stone of a fiery-red color, found in the 
East Indies—a ruby, sapphire, or garnet. A hard 

607 





32 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


and painful swelling on the skin on the trunk or 
back of the neck, larger than a boil, and with no 
central core. 

Card. [L. carduus , a thistle.] A comb with bent 
wire teeth set in leather to smooth and arrange 
the fibres of cotton, flax, wool. 

Cardinal Bird. An American song bird or finch, 
with bright-red feathers and a high-pointed crest. 



Ca / ret. [L,. carere , to want.] A mark (a) on a 
line of print or writing to show that something 
wanting and interlined or on the margin ought 
to be inserted. 

Car'mine. [Fr. car min .] A rich red or crimson 
color with a purple shade, prepared from cochi¬ 
neal, and having acid properties. 

Carp. [Dan.] A fresh-water fish, originally from 
Asia, but now in Europe, reared in artificial 
ponds, and latterly also imroduced into America. 
The leather carp is almost wanting in scales, and 
the mirror carp has only a few large scales. 

Carpentry . 1 [L,. carpentum , a coach.] A work in 
wood for the construction of buildings. A car¬ 
penter frames and puts together roofs, partitions, 
and floors of buildings; a joiner makes the doors, 
shutters, stairs, mantle-pieces, and other parts 
requiring more neat joining. 

Car'pet. [Fr. carpette.) A thick covering or 
the floor, usually of wool, but also of cotton, 
hemp, and straw, and made in breadths to be 
sewed together and nailed on the floor. Brussels 
carpet is made of worsted yarn on a foundation 
web of strong linen thread, the worsted being 
drawn up in loops to show the pattern. Kidder¬ 
minster carpet is an ingrain carpeting chiefly 
madeat Kidderminster, England. Tapestry some¬ 
what resembles Brussels, the warp being printed 
at intervals before weaving, so as to produce the 
figure in the carpet. Turkish carpets and Per¬ 
sian carpets are made similarly with woolen 
threads on a linen warp, and are similar in color 
and in softness. Axminster carpets arc like Turk¬ 
ish, but are made with worsted, and are very 
handsome. Moquette, Chenille, and Wilton are 
velvety carpets. 

Carriage. Motor. (Sec Automobile.) 

Car / rier=pig / eon. A variety of domestic pigeon 
used to convey letters from a distant point to its 
home. It has been used in war. 

608 


Car'ronade. [From Carroti in Scotland, where 
first made during the Peninsular War.] A short 
cannon without trunnions, but supported 011 its 
carriage by a bolt. 

Carrot. [Bot. name Dancus carota.] A biennial 
plant with a long tapering spindle-shaped root of 
a red color. It is used in soups and stews, and 
highly valued as a food for cattle. 

Cart. [Celt.] A frame on two or more wheels for 
carrying loads. In excavating sand, gravel or 
earth, one-third cubic yard of material before it is 
loosened is a cart-load. 

Cartridge. [Fr. car Louche.'] A case of paper or 
metal containing powder and sometimes shot for 
a gun. Ball cartridge contains a projectile, and 
blank cartridge is without one. 

Ca'sein. [L,. caseus, cheese, j An albuminous sub¬ 
stance contained in milk, and forming the prin¬ 
cipal constituent of cheese. The casein in milk 
is not coagulated by boiling, like albumen ; but 
rennet, or an acid, separates out the casein and 
butter as curds , leaving the milk, sugar, and 
salts as whey. 

Cas'sia. [Semitic.] The pulp of the pods of a legu¬ 
minous shrub in the East Indies ; also the bark 
of Chinese cinnamon, imported as cassia and sold 
as cinnamon, from which oil of cinnamon is ex¬ 
tracted. 


Cast=Fron. Iron that is cast into pigs or moulds. 
It contains more carbon than steel, is brittle in 
character, but is used for many purposes. (See 
Iron.) 

Castor Oil. A mild cathartic oil got from the 
castor-oil p\aat{Ricinus communis),an<\ used as a 
medicine. It is colorless, but possesses a nau¬ 
seous taste. In India it is obtained in such 
abundance as to be used for illuminating as well 
as for medicinal purposes. It is greatly made 
in France, Italy, and the Western States of 
America. 



Cat. [B. catus .] A small domestic animal, of the 
same family as the lion, tiger, leopard, etc. The 
cat is a flesh-eater, and is fond of birds and mice. 

It has a fur 
coat, 
smooth and 
glossy a n d 
soft as silk; 
has padded 
feet, can 
run or walk 
noiselessly 
and is a 
goodclimb- 
er. The cat 
seeks its 

CATERPILLAR. 

prey at 

night, having excellent powers of vision, while 
the long stiff hairs around its mouth are very sen¬ 
sitive, and aid it to find its way in the dark. There 
are several varieticsof cats, as the Angora, Manx, 
Maltese, Persian, and tortoise-shell. 'I lie Per¬ 
sian has long, soft, silvery hair and bushy tail. 
The Manx cat has no tail. Wild cats feed on 
birds, rabbits, hares and poultry. 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


33 


Cat'acombs. [Gk. kata , downward; kymbe, cav¬ 
ity.] Great excavations in the vicinity of ancient 
Rome, used for burial by the early Christians. 
They are cut in a soft volcanic material, and the 
total length of their galleries is at least 300 or 400 
miles. 

Cat bird. An American bird allied to the Mock¬ 
ing-bird, and possessing a remarkable power of 
imitating the notes of other birds. Its spring 
song is mellow and sweet, but it has also a disa¬ 
greeable note, somewhat like the mew of a cat. 
It is found in the eastern half of the United 
States. 

Caterpillar. [Fr.] The larval state of a butterfly 
or moth. True caterpillars have three pairs of 
true legs and several pairs of fleshy legs armed 
with hooks. T hey usually feed on leaves, fruit, 
and vegetables. Some are called worms—as silk¬ 
worm, canker-worm, etc. After a time they sur¬ 
round themselves with a sheath or case of leaves, 
silk, or other substance, pass into the chrysalis 
state, and finally emerge as the mature insect. 
(See Butterfly.) 

Cat/fish. A common American fish, with naked 
skin and eight fleshy barbules on the head. It 
is from 7 to 9 inches long, and is a favorite food- 
fish. The Great Rake Catfish, found in Rakes 
Erie and Ontario, is from 2 to 4 feet long, and 
weighs from 6 to 30 pounds. There are also very 
large catfish in the Mississippi and other rivers of 
the West. 

Cat'gut. A cord of great toughness made from the 
intestines of animals, especially of sheep, and 
used for musical instruments. 

Cat'kin [O.E.] The flow T ers of willow, poplar, 
and some other trees. It consists of a slender 
axis with many flowers wanting in petals along 
its sides, and is called catkin from its resem¬ 
blance to a cat’s tail. 

Caf/nip or CatTnint. [R. Mentha cataria.~\ A 
plant common in the United States, of whose 
leaves cats are very fond. They have a sharp 
and bitter taste. A tea made from them is some¬ 
times used as medicine. 

Cats'eye. A very precious stone which, when cut 
in a certain way, presents different colors, like 
the opal. It is so named because the eye of the 
cat has a similar power. 

Cattle. A term denoting all animals of the ox 
kind. [See Cozu.] 

Cauliflower. [Fr.] A variety of cabbage w’ith a 
cluster of flower stalks and buds. It is more 
delicate in taste than the ordinary cabbages, and 
much esteemed as food. 

Caustic. [Fr. from Gk. kaiein , to burn.] A 
substance that burns the flesh. Caustic lime is 
slaked lime, also quicklime. Caustic potash 
and soda are the hydroxides, Caustic silver or 
lunar caustic is nitrate of silver. 

Cave or Cav / ern. [R. cavus, hollow.] A hollow 
place underground. Among the most interest¬ 
ing caves are the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky ; 
Fingal’s Cave, a basaltic cave in Staffa, Scotland; 
the Adelsburg caves, in Carniola ; and the Ruray 
cave, in Virginia. Many caves contain splendid 
stalactites and stalagmites. Mammoth Cave has 

39 


been penetrated for 10 miles, and contains a 
river and many splendid apartments. The 
greatest caves occur in limestone strata. Primi¬ 
tive man seems to have dwelt in caves, and bones 
and implements left by him have been found 
there. 

Ce / dar. [R.] An evergreen tree with spreading 
branches and hard red w r ood with a fragrant 
smell. The chief varieties are the cedar of 
Rebanon, the white cedar, the American red 
cedar, the Spanish cedar. Cedar has a pleasant 
smell, and is much used for making chests and 
cabinets. The red cedar of Florida is largely 
employed in making lead pencils. 

Cel'andine. [Fr. from Gk. chelidon , a swallow.] 
A plant like a poppy, with yellow flowers, sup¬ 
posed to come and go with the swallows. It is 
used as a medicine in jaundice and for warts. 

Cel'ery. [Fr.] A vegetable of the Parsley family 
of which the blanched leaf-stalks are used as a 
relish for food. 

Cell. [R.] One of the smallest parts of a plant 
or animal. All cells have their origin in the 
primary cell from which the organism was 



DANIEL'S CELL. 


developed. Also in electricity ajar or vessel, or 
a division of a vessel, for holding the fluid of a 
battery. Daniels’ cell. Z, Zinc rod in porous 
pot P y containing dilute sulphuric acid ; C, cop¬ 
per in outer vessel containing copper sulphate 
solution. Also a room in a prison, a sleeping 
room in a monastery, a small cavity or hollow 7 
place. 

CeFluloid. An ivory-like compound of camphor 
and collodion. It is made into knife handles, 
pianoforte keys, billiard balls, shirt collars and 
cuffs, and many other things, and used instead 
of glass for photographic dry plates. 

CeFluIose. A substance which is the basis of 
almost all vegetable fabrics. It has recently come 
into use as a lining for war ships to prevent the 
inflow of water through shot holes. It does this 

609 

















































































34 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON TILINGS 


by swelling when wet. A preparation was first 
used for this purpose made from the fibrous 
husk of the cocoanut, but a better article is now 
in use obtained from the pith of the cornstalk. 

CerrFent. The best-known cements are Portland 
and Roman cements, and are distinguished from 
mortar by hardening quickly, while mortar 
hardens slowly. Portland and Roman cements 
both set or harden under water ; hence they are 
generally spoken of as hydraulic cements, 
although they are often used in superior 
masonry which is not intended to be covered 
by water. Portland cement is made of chalk 
or ground limestone mixed with clay or shale. 
Roman cement is made from a natural mixture 
of lime and clay. Of the natural cement 
stones found in the United States, the best 
are the Rosendale cements of New York. A 
cement made of carbonate of magnesia is 
superior in strength and hardness to all others. 
For ordinary cementing, plaster of Paris is very 
useful, and there are many cements to mend 
broken glass, ivory, wood, etc. 

Centipede or Cen / tiped. [L,. centum, a hundred ; 
pes , foot.] An animal with one hundred feet or 
with many feet. They are also many-jointed. 
Large, flat-headed, venomous kinds live in 
tropical countries. 

Centre of Gravity. The point in a body at which 
we may suppose the whole weight of the body 
to be collected; and therefore so long as this 
point is supported the body will rest indifferently 
in any position. 

ChafTinch. [O.E.] An English song bird, said 
to like chaff, and valued as a cage-bird. (See 
Finch.) 

Chalk. [AS.; L . calx.~\ A form of soft limestone, 
widely spread in parts of Europe ; not found in 

America. I n 
southeast Eng¬ 
land it forms 
a bed nearly 
one thousand 
feet thick. If 
we pour a 
drop of vine¬ 
gar on a lump 
of chalk, there 
is a bubbling 
up, or effer¬ 
vescence, 
which is due 
to carbonic 
acid gas escap¬ 
ing from the chalk. The chalk, in fact, 
is nearly pure carbonate of lime, w T hich is 
a compound of the metal calcium with 
carbon and oxygen. All limestones can be 
detected in this way by pouring on them a few 
drops of some acid. Most limestones are com¬ 
posed of the shells or hard parts of the coral-build¬ 
ing animals, but chalk is composed of the shells of 
minute swimming or floating animals, whose 
hard parts, after death, sank to the bottom and 
collected into thick layers. These were after¬ 
wards uplifted to the surface and became cliffs or 

610 


beds of chalk. Chalk is used in connection with 
the blackboard in lecture-rooms and schools. 
Various preparations of it are made for pastel 
colors. It is also used as a manure. 

Chameleon. [L-] An animal of the Lizard tribe 
which has the power of changing its color at will. 
In a dark place it is white or grayish, but when 
light is admitted its color changes to red, green, 
or brown, in accordance with the color of its loca¬ 
tion. It lives in trees, and has a very extensible 
tongue, covered with a sticky secretion, by which 
it can seize insects and draw r them into its mouth. 

CharrFois.. [Fr.] An animal of the Antelope 
family which is found in the Alps at a height of 
more than 8,000 feet above the sea-level. It is 
like the goat in its looks and habits. Its horns 
are peculiar, rising straight from the crest of the 
head for some inches and curving backward sud¬ 
denly so as to form a pair of sharp hooks. Its 
hind-legs are longer than its fore legs, so that in 
descending mountains its hind feet catch rough 
places and its fore feet are set close together and 
pushed forward. It is acute in scenting man at a 
distance, and footprints in the snow will alarm 
the wary animal. The chamois live in herds, and 
when grazing they post one of their number to 
give the alarm ; but if danger comes, they see it 
so quickly that often they make off before the 
.signal is given. The skin of the chamois is much 
valued for making chamois leather, which com¬ 
bines softness with tenacity. “ Chamois leather,” 
or wash-leather, is now made from the flesh side 
of sheep skins. 

Champagne'. [Fr.] A light wine, of several kinds, 
originally made in Champagne, France. This 
wine contains much carbonic acid gas, which 
causes effervescence when poured out. 

Charcoal. [AS.] The most common form of 
carbon. The purest form is animal charcoal, 
called also bone black and ivory black. It is 
prepared by heating bones in a vessel nearl}’ 
closed ; the volatile matters are driven off, and 
bone black is left. It is used in purify ing sugar 
and in the filtration of water. Wood charcoal is 
prepared by burning wood with a limited supply 
of air ; only the more volatile constituents burn 
away, and) the greater part of the carbon is left. 
Charcoal so prepared is black and brittle ; it re¬ 
tains the form of the wood from which it is de¬ 
rived. Other forms of charcoal are gas-carbon, 
coke, and lamp-black. It has a remarkable power 
of absorbing gases, and has therefore valuable 
uses in medicine and as a substance for respir¬ 
ators. It is used as a deodorant, and as a dis¬ 
infectant in hospitals and dissecting-rooms. It 
is also largely employed in the manufacture of 
gunpowder. 

Chart. [L-, cliarta, paper.] A map especially for 
the use of seamen. Heliographic, of the sun; 

^ selenograpic, of the moon. 

Cheese. [AS., fiom L. caseus, cheese.] Curd of 
milk pressed hard. By adding rennet to milk, 
the nitrogenous substance called casein is made 
to curdle or coagulate ; and it is separated from 
the whey by straining. The curds are pressed 
into shape in moulds and then dried. The best 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


35 


cheese is made from new milk—that is, from 
milk which has not lost its cream. The richest 
kind of cheese made in England is called Stilton 
cheese ; it is made from milk to which cream has 
been added. Cheddar cheese is made from good 
new milk, while some other kinds are made 
from milk partly or fully skimmed of its cream. 
G my ere cheese, made in Switzerland, is flavored 
with herbs. Roquefort is made from the milk 
of sheep and goats. Skim-milk cheese is a flesh¬ 
forming food, because it consists chiefly of 
casein; new-milk cheese is a flesh-forming and 
a heat-producing food, because it contains the 
casein and also the milk-fat or cream. One hun¬ 
dred pounds of cheese contain 30 lbs. of fat. 
Cheese in America is (principally made in large 
factories, largely in New York State. The annual 
production in the United States is about 50,000,000 
pounds. (See Curds.) 

Chemistry. [Gk.] The Egyptians, Greeks, and 
Romans were acquainted with many of the sub¬ 
stances known to us at the present day, and also 
with the method of their preparation ; but among 
those nations nothing was known of chemistry 
as a science. During the Middle Ages the al¬ 
chemists experimented with numerous sub¬ 
stances, more especially with such as were of a 
metallic nature, with the object of turning them 
into gold. In this way they discovered some im¬ 
portant substances. Dr. Black’s discovery of 
“fixed air,’’ or carbonic acid, in 1756, led the 
way to the discovery of other gases by Caven¬ 
dish, Rutherford, Priestley, Scheele. The dis¬ 
covery of oxygen by Priestley in 1774 enabled 
Lavoisier to explain the true nature of combus¬ 
tion. Next came the discovery of the law’s of 
chemical combination by Dalton, and the publi¬ 
cation of his atomic theory. Sir Humphrey 
Davy, by decomposing potash and soda in 1807, 
laid the foundation of electro-chemistry. The 



CHESS BOARD. 


most important advances in chemistry .were 
made during the nineteenth century, and in or¬ 
ganic chemistry progress has been very rapid. 

Cheroot/. [Tamil.] A kind of cigar originally 
made in Manilla ; now a cigar of inferior or 
adulterated tobacco. 


Cher / ry. [Fr., from Gk. kerasos~\ A tree of the 
Prune or Plum family bearing a red stone-fruit, 
which is much esteemed for dessert purposes and 
for conserves. There are several hundred varie¬ 
ties of the common garden cherry. The wild or 
black cherry of the United States is a beautiful 
and useful tree, its wood being much esteemed 
by cabinet-makers. Its fruit is not very good for 
eating. Cherry brandy or rum is brandy or rum 
in which cherries have been steeped. 

Chess. [Fr., from Pers. shah, a king.] A game 
played by two persons on a board divided into 
squares. Each player has a king, a queen, tw r o 
bishops, two knights, two castles, and eight 
pawns. The king, when made prisoner or check¬ 
mated, is assumed to be dead, and the game 
ends. There is no game requiring more skill. 

Chest/nut. [Fr., from Gr. kastanon, a chestnut.] 

A tree with white 
or red flow r ers like 
spikes, and a fruit 
of a reddish brown 
color, enclosed in 
a green prickly 
husk, the nuts be¬ 
ing covered by a 
thick firm skin. 
The timber is hard 
and lasting, a 11 d 
used for ornamen¬ 
tal work, fur¬ 
niture, etc. 
The bark is used in tanning. The chestnut is 
found in Europe, America and Japan. The Eu¬ 
ropean chestnut bears a much larger fruit than 
the American, but not so sweet. Its starchy con¬ 
tents are used for bread-making in Italy. 

Chick'weed. The name of several weeds, espe¬ 
cially Slellaria media , the seeds and buds of 
which are a favorite food of small birds. 

Chicory. [L- cichorium.~\ A common Euro¬ 
pean plant, known also as succory. It is 
somewhat like the dandelion, and a substitute 
for coffee is obtained from its root by roast¬ 
ing and grinding. It is mixed with coffee 
or used by itself. Chicory can easily be distin¬ 
guished from coffee by placing some of it in 
water. It rapidly sinks, and colors the liquid a 
reddish-brown ; but genuine coffee floats, and 
does not color the water. The chicory or succory 
plant grows on limy soils and by the dusty 
roadside. It has large bright blue flowers and 
toothed leaves. It is introduced in America where 
the blue and white-flowered varieties are common. 

ChiFblain. [AS.] A swelling produced by the ex¬ 
posure of the hands or feet to cold and sudden heat. 

Chimpan/zee. [Fr.] A West African ape which 
is more like man in some ways than any other 
ape. When full grown it is 4 feet high. It has 
no hair on the hands and face, and none on its 
large rounded ears. Its arms are shorter than the 
orang’s, but fall below the knee. Its habit in 
walking is to bend forward and rest on the hands. 
When tamed it has been taught to eat food with 
a spoon at a table, but in the wild state it lives 
among the branches of trees near the ground. 

611 






















36 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


ChFna. A fine kind of ware first made in China, 
and first brought from China in the seventeenth 
century. (See Porcelain .) China ink is India 
ink. * 

Chinchil'la. A South American rodent like a squir¬ 
rel, with five-toed fore feet and four-toed hind 
feet, and a large bushy tail. Its soft fleecy fur is 
much valued. It is a shy animal, with nocturnal 
habits. 

Chine. [Fr.] A piece of the backbone and sur¬ 
rounding flesh of an animal cut for cooking. 

Chintz. [Hind.] Cotton cloth printed with col¬ 
ored patterns, and often glazed. (See Cotton.) 
Chintz is used for bed-hangings and to cover fur 
niture. 

Chip'munk. A small American squirrel, marked 
with black stripes on a yellowish-brown skin ; 
thence called striped squirrel; also ground squir¬ 



rel, since it lives in the ground, in which it bur¬ 
rows and makes its nest. It lives on seeds and 
nuts, which it carries in cheek pouches and 
stores up in its holes. It is also called cheeping 
squirrel, from the noise it makes. Its worst enemy 
is the weasel, which follows it into its burrow. 

Chlo'ral. [Gk.] A chemical substance prepared 
by acting on pure alcohol with dry chlorine gas. 
It is a limpid, colorless liquid. With water it forms 
chloral hydrate , a crystalline substance, largely 
used for the purpose of obtaining quiet sleep. 

ChIo / rides. [Gk ] Salts formed when chlorine 
gas unites with metals. The only chloride which 
occurs plentifully in nature is sea, or rock-salt, 
which is a chloride of sodium. 

Chlo / rine. [Gk. chloros, light green.] One of 
the non-metallic elements, discovered by Scheele 
in 1774. It is prepared from common salt by the 
action of sulphuric acid on manganese dioxide. 
It is a transparent gas of a greenish yellow color, 
which does not occur free in nature. United 
with the metals sodium, potassium, and magne¬ 
sium, it forms the chief salts of sea-water. Clilo- 
rine is a powerful bleaching agent, and this action 
depends upon the power which it possesses of 
combining with the hydrogen of water, and so set¬ 
ting free the oxygen. 

Chlo roform. [Gk. chloros , light-green, and for¬ 
myl.] A heavy; colorless volatile liquid, possess¬ 
ing an agreeable odor, like ether ; it has a sweet 
though acid taste ; it is only slightly soluble in 
water ; it dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, gutta¬ 
percha, iodine, and fatty and resinous substances. 
It was discovered in 1831 by Guthrie in America, 
and attention was first called to its anaesthetic 
properties by Flourens in 1S47, regarding its 
612 


effects on animals ; and soon after this Simpson 
of Edinburgh introduced it as an anaesthetic in 
medical practice. Its effect on the nervous sys¬ 
tem is to cause a suspension of voluntary motion 
and of sensation, while respiration and the action 
of the heart are continued. 

Ghlo'rophyl. [Gk. chloros , light-green ; phylion, 
leaf.] The substance 'Which gives plants their 
green color. It is ft resinous substanceV whose 
Chemical composition is not exactly known. 

Choc/olate. [Spall, or Aztec.] A sweetmeat made 
from cocoa. (See Cocoa.) 

ChoFera. An epidemic intestinal disease, which 
seems native to Southern Asia, and has at various 
times swept with terrible destruction of life over 
Europe and America. It produces severe and 
painful cramp, often quickly followed by death. 
It is now known to be due to a form of bacteria 
( q. v.), and recent epidemics have been checked 
by sanitary measures. 

Chough. [AS.] A bird of the Crow family, of a black 
color, and with a long, slender, curved bill and red 
legs. The Cornish chough is the sea-swallow. 

Chrome or Chro / mium. [Gk.] A hard, fusible, 
and brittle metal. Potassium chromate and lead 
chromate (chrome red) are used in dyeing and 
calico-printing. Chrome yellow is used by paint¬ 
ers. Pure chromium is the most difficult to fuse 
of all the metals. Its compounds are much used 
in the arts, in painting and coloring. It forms 
four compounds with oxygen, and its chief ore 
is chrome ironstone, found in America, Sweden, 
and the Shetlands. 

ChronorrPeter. [Gk. chronos , time ; and metron , 
a measure.] An instrument for the exact mea¬ 
surement of time. The name is commonly ap¬ 
plied to a portable time-keeper, in opposition to 

a clock, which is station¬ 
ary. In chronometers 
the balance-wheel is compen¬ 
sated, so as not to be affected by 
changes of temperature. 

Chrysalis. [Gk. chrysos , 
gold.] The pupa or yellow form 
which many insects take before 
they get their wings. When the 
larva of the butterfly leaves 
off eating, it enters the 
chrysalis state. Wrapped in 
a dry skin, and hanging head 
downward, suspended or tied 
by a silken thread, it remains 
seemingly dead. A marvellous 
change is going on, and when 
the skin bursts a fullgrown butterfly appears. 

Chrysanthemum. [Gk. chrysos , gold; anthemon , 
flower.] A family of perennial plants, consist¬ 
ing of the ox-eye daisy, feverfew, but chiefly 
the garden chrysanthemum, of which there are 
1,500 varieties, some of them of great size and 
beauty. Some have their petals rolled up like 
quills. This flower was introduced from Chiua 
or Japan about 1764. 

CFder. [Fr.] A drink made from the juice of 
apples. Besides being used as a oeverage, it is 
used for making vinegar and cider-brandy. 



CHRYSALIS. 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


37 


Cigar'. [Span.] A small roll of dried tobacco 
leaves for smoking. Originally a kind of tobacco 
made in Havana, Cuba, where the finest are 
made. In the United States very many million 
cigars are made annually, and large numbers are 
also made in Havana. 

Cigarette', [hr-] A roll of loose fine tobacco 
rolled in paper for smoking. 

Cincho'na or CascariUla. A tree growing in the 
Andes and in the Hast Indies, from the * bark of 
which is procured Peruvian bark, which yields 
quinine, a substance of great medicinal value in 
fevers. In the 17th century the wife of Count 
Cinchon, Viceroy of Peru, was cured of fever by 
the bark of this tree, hence the name. 

Cin'nabar. [E. cinnabar is.~\ Red sulphide of 
mercury, or vermilion. It occurs as crystals. 
It is used as a paint and in medicine. Cinnabar 
grecorum is a red resin used for coloring 
varnishes, and known as dragon’s blood. 

Cin namon. [Heb. qinnatnon.~\ The bark of a 
kind of laurel tree found in Ceylon. It is 
aromatic, pungent, and used as a cordial. With 
cassia it yields the oil of cinnamon. Cinnamon 
is used in medicine, cooking, and confectionery. 

Cir'cle [E. circusi\ A plane figure contained by 
one line called the circumference, and such that 
all straight lines drawn from a point within the 
figure, called the centre, to the circumference 
are equal. Any straight line drawn through the 
centre of a circle, and terminated both ways by 
the circumference, is called a diameter. A line 
from the centre to the circumference is called a 
radius. Two diameters at right angles to one 
another divide a circle into four equal parts 
called quadrants. Each of these is divided into 
90°, so that the whole circumference of a circle 
contains 360°. 

The movement of the blood 
through the vascular 
organs of animals. In 
birds and mammals, the 
air-breathing a 11 i m a 1 s , 
the circulation is double 
(pulmonary and systemic), 
and is carried on through 
the heart ( q.v .), the arteries, 
and the capillary tubes. In 
reptiles the heart consists 
of two auricles, and one 
ventricle, and there is an 
incomplete double circula¬ 
tion. In fishes, which are 
water-breathing animals, 
there is a simple circulation 
—the heart consisting of 
a single auricle and a sin¬ 
gle ventricle, the blood 
taking in oxygen and giving 
the gills instead of the lungs, 
fishes. 

Cis'terns. [E. cisterna ; from cista, box, chest.] 
Receptacles for water. They are generally 
square or round in shape, and are commonly 
lined with lead. Soft water acts upon lead, 
dissolving it and forming carbonate of lead, 


which is a poisonous substance. It is the bright, 
clean lead which is affected. After the lead has 
become dull, or crusted over, the water can no 
longer dissolve it. 

Cit'ric Acid. An acid which is found in lemon 
juice, and which also occurs along with tartaric 
and malic acids in many other fruits—such as 
oranges, cherries, currants, garden rhubarb, etc. 
It is prepared from lemon or lime juice. It crys¬ 
tallizes in large colorless crystals, which dissolve 
freely in water. When dissolved in syrup it is 
kept for use in the manufacture of lemonade. It 
is used by calico-printers, and in the dyeing of 
silk. 

Cit'ron. A fruit of the same family as the lemon 
and orange, and of the shape of a lemon, but 
larger and rougher, while its juice is not so sour. 
It is a native of the south of Europe and Asia. 
A favorite confection is made of its peel pre¬ 
served in sugar, and oil of citron is made from 
the peel and the leaves. Citric acid is sometimes 
made from its juice. 

Clam. A bivalve shell-fish found in many seas, 
one species being the common edible clam 
abundant in the United States, and much used 

as food. There 
are many vari¬ 
eties—as long 
clam , round 
clam, sea 
clam, little- 
11 e c k clam, 
and giant 
clam. The long clam burrows in the sand with 
the muscular organ usually known as its foot. 
Its shell grows at the hinge, and increases as 
fast as the animal grows The giant clam is an 
inhabitant of the China Sea and South Pacific, 
and is the largest known bivalve mollusc, the 
shells being known to measure 2 feet in length 
and weigh 500 lbs. 

Clar'et. [Fr., from E. clarus , clear.] A wine of 
a red color; first applied to Medoc wines, and 
then to red Bordeaux wines. 

Clar'inet or Clar'ionet. [Fr.] A wind instrument 
blown by a single reed, and usually a leading in¬ 
strument in a military baud. 

Clarion. [Fr.] A trumpet with a loud, clearsound. 

Claw. [AS.] The toe nail of a beast or bird. The 
claw of the lion may be unsheathed or put out, 
and withdrawn or sheathed. The claws of the 
dog, which catches its prey with its teeth, are 
blunt, and cannot be withdrawn. The hawk and 
the eagle, that seize their prey alive, have all 
their toes or claws long, curved, strong, and 
sharp ; but the vultures, that feed on dead ani¬ 
mals, have short hind toes, nearly flat front ones, 
and all very weak. The bustard has no hind toe. 
Each foot of the spider has three claws : the mid¬ 
dle one is bent over for clinging to the web ; the 
other two have teeth like a comb, and are used 
sometimes for cleansing the limbs and webs. 

Clay. [AS.] A fine-grained, sandy substance, de¬ 
rived from the decay of aluminium silicates. It 
is white when pure, but it is generally mixed 
with impurities which impart to it various shades 

613 


Circula'tion. [E-] 



out carbonic acid in 
which are absent in 








3 » 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


of gray, brown, red, purple, or blue. When dry 
it is friable, and when wet can be kneaded be¬ 
tween the fingers. When shaken with water it 
becomes mud. It is largely used for making 
bricks and earthenware. 

Clem'atis. A climbing plant of many kinds, found 
in most temperate regions, with beautiful flowers, 
having feathery styles that enlarge in the fruit. 

Clock. [Celt.] A machine for measuring time, 
with wheels moved by weights or springs. It is 
usually made so as to tell the hour by the stroke 
of a hammer on a bell. An alarm clock has a 
mechanism to ring a gong at a set time. An 
astronomical clock has a compensating pendu¬ 
lum. An electric clock is regulated or moved by 
electricity. A sidereal clock keeps sidereal time, 
and is fitted on large telescopes. 

Clouds. When vapor is condensed high up in the 
air, it receives the name of cloud. The three 
fundamental forms are— cirrus , cumulus , and 
stratus. The cirrus consists of fibrous, wispy, 
or feathery clouds, placed in the highest region 
of the atmosphere. Cumulus (heap cloud) con¬ 
sists of rounded masses commonly seen in the 
sky in summer, supposed to be formed by 
columns of ascending vapor, the upper portions 
of which have condensed. Stratus is a horizontal 
sheet, frequently formed at sunset, but which 
disappears again at sunrise. These primary 
forms combine into intermediate forms, and are 
all combined in the nimbus or storm-cloud, 
that from which rain falls. The average distance 
of clouds from the earth is between one and two 
miles, but streaky, curling clouds are often six 
or more miles high. 

CJo'ver, A leguminous plant grown for fodder. 
It is one of the most useful crops a farmer can 
grow. Its roots collect and store up a large 
amount of plant-food. The common broad or 
red clover is the kind most generally grown. 
The white or Dutch clover grows in good pasture 
land ; each stem bears a single head of flowers. 
Sheep are very fond of it. Crimson clover gives 

one excellent hay 
crop. Swedish 
clover, on the 
contrary, will 
grow strongly for 
two or three years 
in succession , 
yielding a very 
fair crop each 
year. It has a pink 
flower, and bears 
cold and wet well. 
Cloves. [Fr.] The 
clove tree is of 
the Myrtle order, 
and is a native of the Spice Islands, but is 
now cultivated in Zanzibar and the West Indies 
and othor tropical countries. It resembles the 
laurel, and grows to a height of from 15 to 40 
feet. Its leaves are large and oblong, its flowers 
small and dark red, and its fruit is like an olive 
in shape, but red like the flowers. The fruit, 
when dried, is known as “mother of cloves.” 
614 , 




The cloves used for flavoring are the unopened 
flower-buds. These buds become dark-brown, 
and look like nails ; and so they take their 
name from clou , the French word for nail. The 
little ball which seems to form the head of the 
nail is really composed of the petals of the 
flower, and will unroll if soaked in water. Cloves 
are used for their strong aromatic taste in flavor¬ 
ing food such as puddings, cakes, and preserves. 
Oil of cloves is useful in medicine, and to scent 
toilet soap. 

Coach. [Fr., from Gk. conche, a shell.] A frame¬ 
work with cover and seats, set on wheels, for 
carrying people, having doors in the sides and 
an elevated seat for the driver. Mail coaches 
and tally-ho coaches often have four seats inside 
and seats for twelve outside. 

Coal. [AS.] A black substance (consisting 
mainly of carbon), dug out of the earth, which 
burns and gives heat. Coal is of compact but 

brittle structure, and 
found i n seams and beds, 
and is the remains of a 
luxuriant vegetation 
which flourished on the 
earth’s surface during 
the Carboniferous age, 
and to some extent in 
other geological periods. 
It is supposed to be due 
to the action of heat and 
pressure upon great ac¬ 
cumulations of this ma¬ 
terial. There are many 
varieties of coal, distin- 
coal under the mickoscope. guished from one an¬ 
other by the varying proportions of the different 
constituents. Bituminous coal , such as is in gen¬ 
eral use, contains from 75 to 80 per cent, of carbon, 

5 to 6 of hydrogen, and 10 to 12 of oxygen. 
Anthracite is the most completely mineralized 
variety, and contains about 90 per cent, of 
carbon, the gases oxygen and hydrogen having 
been driven off. Cannel coal and lignite con¬ 
tain less carbon and yield more ashes than those 
named. The present yearly output of coal in 
Great Britain and the United States is about 
200,000,000 tons in each. Other countries yield 
much less. Some of the mines are very deep. 

CoaUtar. A thick black liquid, obtained during 
the distillation of coal for the manufacture of 
illuminating gas. This substance yields madder, 
a coloring substance formerly obtained from the 
roots of a plant. One ton of cannel coal when 
distilled leaves 12 gallons of coal-tar, from which 
are produced 1 lb. of benzene, \]/ 2 lb. of carbolic 
acid, and a number of other substances used for 
dyeing purposes. From these substances there 
may be obtained 16 distinct yellow colors, 12 
orange, 30 red, 15 blue. 7 green, 9 violet, besides 
a number of browns, and an indefinite number of 
blendings. 

Coat. [Fr.] An outer garment for the upper part 
of the body, chiefly worn by men.— Coat of arms 
(translation of cotte d'armes, small coat worn 
over armor), the heraldic bearings of any one. 
























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


39 



COPRA DE CAPELLO. 


Co'bait. [Ger. kobalt; from kobold, a goblin.] 
A reddish-white metal, very tenacious, and very 
difficult to fuse ; occurs in small quantities in 
meteoric stones, and is usually found combined 
with arsenic and sulphur. It forms three com¬ 
pounds with 
oxygen. One 
oxide imparts 
a deep -blue 
color to glass. 
This glass, re¬ 
duced to pow¬ 
der, is used in 
producing the 
blue colors in 
porcelain, pot¬ 
tery, glass, en¬ 
caustic tiles, 
etc. Chloride 
of cobalt dilu¬ 
ted forms sym¬ 
pathetic ink. 
Co'bra de Ca= 
pel'lo. [Port.] 
The hooded 
snake, a very 
veneinous ser¬ 
pent found in India. Its hood is formed by the 
skin of its neck, which it can draw over its head. 
Ordinarily it is like other snakes, but when going 
to strike the head broadens out. It is usually 
carried about by snake-charmers; but in India 
many people die from its bite every year. 

Coch / ineaI. [Span.] A dye got from the dried 
bodies of insects found on a cactus in Mexico, 
Central America, etc., and yielding carmine red. 

Cock. The male of a hen, particularly of domestic 
fowls ; also a valve for drawing liquids ; and a 
small pile of hay. Weathercock is a vane in the 
shape of a cock. 

Cockatoo'. [Malay.] A bird of the Parrot family, 
having a short, strong, and much-curved beak 
and crested head. Among the many varieties are 
the sulphur-crested, broad-crested, and the great 
black cockatoo of Australia. 

Cock'chafer. A beetle; called also may-bug or 
dor-beetle. (See Beetle.') 

Coc'kle. [Celt.] A kind of shell-fish, a bivalve 
with radiating ribs, used in Europe as food ; also 
a weed among corn—applied to the corn-rose and 
darnel. 

Cock'roach. An insect of the straight winged 
family, of which there are many species, some 
living in the woods under stones, leaves and rot¬ 
ten logs ; others, infesting houses, where they 
eat both animal and vegetable food, swarming 
out of their holes at night. There are two kinds 
common in houses, one small, and one quite large. 
They may be destroyed by poison or driven away 
by borax, which they do not like. 

Co'coa. The product of the fruit of chocolate tree, 
a native of Mexico, Central America and Brazil. 
It is a handsome tree, io to 20 feet high, and is 
sheltered when growing by larger trees. It com¬ 
mences to bear fruit in the third year. The fruit 
is cucumber-shaped, and consists of a hard outer 


part from 6 to 8 inches long, and a soft white 
pulp, which protects numerous seeds almost 
as large as almonds. The seeds are cleaned, 

dried, and ground by hot roll¬ 
ers to a paste or powder, which 
is known as rock or flake 
cocoa. Sometimes they are 
broken up by rollers into 
pieces, which are called cocoa 
nibs. Mixed with sugar and 
spices, flake cocoa is known as 
chocolate, and is used in cakes 
and sweetmeats. About one- 
half of the weight of the seeds 
is due to a fat called cocoa 
butter; much of this is re¬ 
moved in making chocolate. 
The active principle of cocoa 
is theobromine, a nitrogenous 
product. 

Cocoa-nut. The nut of the 
cocoa-palm. The tree grows 
in tropical countries to a height 
of from 60 to 80 feet, and is 
without branches, the leaves 
and clusters of nuts being at the top. The nut has 
a milky fluid, and a white meat of albumen 
which yields an oil. The cocoa-palm is found in 
all parts of the tropics, and is a very useful food- 
plant, while its nuts are used in large quantities 
in temperate regions for confectionery and other 
purposes. (See Palm.) 

Cocoon'. [Fr.] The case spun by insects to cover 
them, especially the oblong case of the silk¬ 
worm in its chrysalis state, which is formed of 
threads of silk spun by the insect in its larval 
state, and from which the silk of commerce is 
prepared. 

Cod. [Goth.] An important sea-fish, used as 
food, and taken in immense quantities on the 
northern coasts of Europe and North America. 



COCOA. 



It is very abundant and large on the Banks of 
Newfoundland. There are several kinds—shore- 
cod, in shallow water ; rock-cod, often mottled. 
Cod liver oil is obtained from the liver of the 
cod-fish, and is used extensively in medicine to 
supply the body with fat, 

6*5 


















40 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Cof'fee. The fruit of a tropical evergreen tree 
from whose beans is prepared a favorite beverage. 
In its wild state the coffee tree grows from 20 to 
30 feet high, but when cultivated is not allowed 
to grow more than 8 or 10 feet. Its flowers are 
small, white, and fragrant-smelling, and grow in 
thick clusters. Its berry or fruit is like a cherry, 
and contains two seeds or beans. The first crop 
of fruit appears when the trees are three years 
old. The plants bear fruit for many months, so 
that several crops can be gathered in a year. 
The berries are dried ; then the beans are re¬ 
moved by rollers from the pulp that surrounds 
them. Coffee thrives in moist, warm countries, 
as Abyssinia, Arabia, Brazil, Ceylon, Java, and 
the West Indies. To make coffee, the beans are 
roasted and then ground to a fine powder. Boil¬ 
ing water is then poured on the ground coffee ; 
this dissolves a substance called caffein. The 
best coffee is the Mocha , grown in Arabia. Java 
coffee is also of fine quality. There are many 
other varieties, differing greatly in flavor. Cof¬ 
fee is used very largely in the United States. 

Cog. [Celt.] A tooth or cam on the rim of a 
gear-wheel for imparting or receiving motion. 
A cog-wheel is a gear-wheel with cogs or teeth. 

Cognac. A kind of French brandy, so named 
from the town Cognac. 

Coin. [Fr., from L. cuneus, a wedge.] A piece 
of metal stamped to be used for money. It is 
round, flat, bright, hard, and durable. Alloys of 
the metals are generally used. They are melted 
into ingots, rolled into ribbons to the required 
thickness, and punched, rounded, milled, and 
stamped with a die and counter-die, and weighed. 

Coke. [O.E.] Mineral coal from which bitumen, 
sulphur, or gas has been extracted by roasting 
in a kiln or oven, or by distillation, as for gas. 
It is smokeless, and is largely used in steel 
works and in foundries. 

Cold Storage. A method of preserving food 
substances by keeping them in a low tempera¬ 
ture. Freezing machines are used to chill the air 
for this purpose. This system has come widely 
into use, cold storage rooms being provided in 
all our large cities in which vegetaoles, fruits, 
and meats can be kept for any desired length of 
time. They are of much use in markets to 
preserve the material left unsold. Cold storage 
meats need to be used soon after being thawed 
out, as they spoil more quickly than unfrozen 
meats. 

Cold Wave. The name given in the United States 
to spells of severe depression in temperature, 
usually the effect of anti-cyclonic conditions 
arising in the great plains of western Canada. 

ColTie. A Scotch shepherd dog remarkable for 
its intelligence. There are two breeds, rough- 
haired and smooth-haired. 

Collo'dion. [Gk. holla , glue ; and eidos, like.] 
A substance formed when gun-cotton is dissolved 
in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It is used in 
photography for the purpose of forming a thin 
film on the glass which is to receive the silver 
salts on which the image is formed. Combined 
with camphor it forms celluloid (q.v.) 

6l6 


Cologne' or Cologne Water. A perfume made 
of alcohol flavored with essential oils. The oils 
of many flowers are used, though much of the 
cologne sold is a cheap imitation of the real 
article. It was named from the city of Cologne, 
where it was first made. 

Co'lon. [Gk.] The mark ( :) used at the end of 
a clause complete in itsel f and nearly independent. 
Semicolon, the mark ( ; ) used to indicate a 
separation more distinct than the comma. 

Col'o'r. [U-] The term used to express the 
different sensations which are produced when 
light of different kinds enter the eye. When 
ordinary white light is passed through a prism 
( q.v .), it is decomposed into seven colored rays— 
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. 
There are three primary color sensations—red, 
green, and violet; and the blending of these in 
different proportions gives rise to all the other 
colors. 

Col'umn. [U.] A long round piece of stone, 
wood, or metal set on end to hold up or adorn a 
building. It is usually ornamented, and com¬ 
posed of base, shaft, and capital. A clustered 
column is a column composed of several smaller 
columns. (See Capital.') 

Com'ets. [Gk. home, hair.] A wandering class 
of heavenly bodies. As seen through a powerful 
telescope, a comet consists of an ill-defined mass 
of light called the head, which is much brighter 
towards the centre, presenting the appearance of 
a nucleus like a star or planet. Surrounding the 
nucleus there are certain definite layers of 
luminous material, which seems to unite behind 
the head, and from which a luminous train called 
the tail proceeds. The direction in which the 
tail points is always opposite to that of the sun. 
There are many comets revolving round the sun 
in very elliptic orbits, almost touching the sun 
at one end of the orbit and very distant at the 
other. Other comets are supposed to come from 
the depths of space. Some of them break up 
into fragments and form meteoric rings. 

Com'mon. [Fr.] A piece of land to which all 
have right for pleasure or pasturage. 

Com'pass, Mar'iners. A magnet (q.v.), when 

suspended horizon¬ 
tally, always points 
in a direction nearly 
north and south, and 
on this principle has 
b een constructed 
the mariner’s com¬ 
pass, an instrument 
of great value to sail¬ 
ors, as showing them 
in what direction 
to steer. In the 
compass the needle 
is fitted up in such 
a way that it will always remain horizontal 
whether the ship is pitching or rolling. The 
needle is firmly attached to a circular card (called 
the compass card),which is divided into thirty-two 
equal parts by lines drawn from the centre to 













ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


4i 


the circumference. The mariner’s compass was 
brought from Cliiua to Europe during the thir¬ 
teenth century. 

Compress'ed Air. One of the first important trses 
of compressed air as a source of power was in 
the excavation of the Mount Cenis and the 
Hoosac Mountain railroad tunnels, in which air 
compressed by water power was conducted by 
pipes into the depth of the tunnels. Another 
important use is in the air brake on railroad 
trains. It is used for many other purposes, an 
important one being the propulsion of street 
cars by compressed air motor engines, and 
another one the driving of letters through tubes 
from the central to the branch offices of some 
large cities. 

Concertina. [Ital.] A small musical instrument 
like an accordion, with bellows, having reeds 
inside and keys and handles on each of two six- 
sided heads. 

Con'crete. [U.] A hard building material made 
of gravel, pebbles, sand, and pieces of stone held 
together by cement [q-v.), or tar, used for side¬ 
walks, foundations, and submarine structures. 

Con'dor. [Span.] The largest of known vultures. 
It is of the vulture kind, and lives on the highest 
Andes, building its nest 15,000 feet above the level 
of the sea. In winter these birds descend in groups 
to feed on the low grounds and the seashore. 
They possess the instinct of discovering a dead or 
dying animal at a very great distance, and though 
they feed princpally on carrion they will some¬ 
times seize living animals. The condor is usu¬ 
ally 4 feet long, and has 9 feet spread of wing. 

Cone. [Fr.] A figure with a round base tapering 
to the top or vertex. Also the fruit of firs, cedars, 
and other trees known as conifers, composed of 
woody scales, each of which has one or two seeds 
at its base. 

Congou. [Chin.] Black tea of higher grade, finer 
leaf, and less dusty than boliea. It means “ well 
worked.” In the United States it is called “ Eng- 
glish breakfast tea.” 

Constellation. [U. con ; and stella, a star.] The 
name given to the artificial groups of stars. The 
figures of men and animals were of old supposed 
to be outlined in the sky, and mythological 
names were given to them. The stars in a con¬ 
stellation are distinguished by the Greek letters 
a, b g,d, etc. ; as a Tauri [Alder bar an), first star 
in Taurus, or g Orionis (Bellatrix), third star in 
Orion. 

Convolvulus. [L-] A monopetalous plant with 
twining stems, including the bindweed, with 
flowers beautifully colored. Morning glory, 
and sweet potato belong to the same family, and 
are first cousins to convolvulus. 

Co'ny. [O.E.] A kind of rabbit. The cony of 
Scripture is the daman or rock-rabbit. 

Coot. [Du.] A short-tailed water bird. It is the 
common mud-hen of the marshes, and is interest¬ 
ing because of its lobed foot, which has flaps on 
the sides of the toes. The European coot is 
named the bald coot, in allusion to the bald or 
bare patch on the front of its head. There are 
several American varieties. 



Co'pal. [Span.] A resinous substance consisting 
of the dried juice of various trees growing in Zan¬ 
zibar, Madagascar, India, and South America. In 
Africa also it is dug from the earth where forests 
once stood. It is sold in rounded masses, and in 
appearance resembles amber. After being melted, 
it becomes soluble in alcohol ; and in this way 
varnishes and lacquers are prepared. 

Cop'per. [O E.] A metal, so called from the 
island,of Cyprus, where the Greeks and Romans 
obtained it. Metallic copper is found in the 
United States, but it is generally prepared from 
its ores, of which there are several, found in 
most European countries, as well as in North 
and South America, Africa, Australia, and Japan. 
The principal localities in the United States are 
Michigan, Montana, and Arizona. It can be ob¬ 
tained from its 
ores at a com¬ 
paratively low 
temperature; 
which accounts 
for its extensive 
use in the early 
stages of civili¬ 
zation. Metallic 
copper posses¬ 
ses a deep, red 
color, takes on 
a brilliant 
polish, is very 
malleable a n d 
ductile, and as 
a conductor of 
heat and elec¬ 
tricity it comes 
next to silver. 
It is not acted 
on by water, 
nor by exposure 
to dry air, but 
in moist air it 
becomes coated 
with green car- 
bonate. Red 
oxide of cop¬ 
per is used for 
coloring glass. 
Blue vitriol 
is the sulphate, 
and is much 
used in dyeing 

and in the preparation of paints. Copper mixed 
with tin is bell-metal, and with less tin is bronze ; 
with zinc, it is brass or pinchpeck. 


Cop / per=plate. A plate of copper on which pic¬ 
tures or writing are engraved. In printing from 
copper the lines are filled with ink, the surface 
is wiped clean, and the impression taken by 
pressing paper under the roller of a press. 

Coital. [ Animal .] A minute creature, of low 
organization, which builds itself a framework of 
carbonate of lime, which is lined with the fleshy 
body of the living animal. Corals live in colonies 
in the warm seas, and their combined shells form 


617 








4 2 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


great masses of coral rock, which in some regions 
become reefs or islands. They cannot exist at a 
depth greater than from 90 to 120 feet, and they 
also die by exposure to the air, so that from a 
depth of about 100 feet they work upwards until 
they reach low-water mark ; and when their pro¬ 
gress is thus stopped in the upward direction, 
they begin to grow outwards, increasing on the 
outer edges of the reef, where they find food, 
carried by the ocean currents, most abundant. 
The action of the waves and the chemical action 
of the sea-water cement the materials into a firm 
steep slope. When a reef has been built on a 
shelving sea-bottom near a continent or round a 
volcanic island, the space of water inside is called 
the las;0on channel. When the reef has been 
built on a submarine ridge or peak, it forms a 
circular island, called an atoll , with a broad lake 
of sea-water inside, called a lagoon. 

Corduroy'. [Fr.] A thick cotton cloth with the 
surface in ridges. 

Cork. [Span.] The bark of a tree similar to the 
oak in appearance. The trees grow for 15 years 
before the cork is gathered, and some trees live 
over 150 years. They are found in Spain, Italy, 
and Portugal. The cork forests of Spain cover 
620,000 acres. The bark is cut lengthwise, and 
stripped off in sheets in July and August. After a 
year new bark forms, and the process is repeated 
every three or four years. The sheets are soaked 
in water and placed under weights, and when dry 
are ready for use. These sheets are cut into 
corks by machinery. They are first cut into nar¬ 
row strips, then they are cut into different-sized 
pieces for bottles, and then rounded. Cork is 
used for stoppers because it is elastic, so that 
after being pressed into the neck of a bottle it 
fills the space and allows 110 air to pass in nor any 
of the contents to escape. Cork is also used for 
soles of slippers and in the making of life-boats 
and life-preservers. 

Cor'morant. [Fr., frojn U. corvus marinus , or 
sea-crow-] A sea-bird which greedily devours 
fish. It is about the size of a goose, and has a 

yellowish 
skin, which, 
hanging 
loosely under 
its bill, forms 
a wide pouch. 
The legs arc 
strong and 
black, and the 
webbed feet 
have one claw, 

indented like a saw. The cormorant is wont to 
fish with its head under water, and it has such a 
clear eye and dives so well that it is able to be 
under the waves till it catches its fish. Fish after 
fish will disappear into the skinny pouch under 
the bill. It is said a cormorant can devour 4 lbs. 
of fish a day, which is half its own weight. If a 
fish is too large to swallow, it will toss it up in 
the air, and catching it again head foremost bolt 
it more easily. In China, the cormorant is 
trained to dive and catch fish, but a strap beneath 
618 


its throat prevents it from swallowing it; each 
time the fish is taken from it, the bird returns 
to its work till the owner is satisfied. 

Corn.. [AS.] In Scotland, applied to oats ; in the 
United States, to maize ; in England, to wheat; 
in Russia, to rye and barley. A collective name 
for the grains. The corn-producing grasses 
furnish excellent food for both man and beast. 
They contain a great deal of starch, and also a 
fair proportion of such flesli-formers as gluten 
and fibrin. Wheat and oats are superior as food 
to barley and rye, containing more flesh-form¬ 
ing matter and less water. Wheat is, as a rule, 
too expensive a food to give to cattle, but the 
bran, which consists of the outer coating of the 
grain of wheat, is a very useful food for cattle 
and horses. It is rather indigestible, and should 
first be scalded in boiling water. Oats and maize 
are largely used for animal food. 

Cor'net. [Fr.] A wind instrument made of brass, 
furnished with valves moved by small pistons or 
sliding rods, and used in bands and orchestras. 

Corolla. [L,.] The colored envelope of a flower 
which surrounds the organs of fructification, con¬ 
sisting of one or more leaves called petals. 

Cot'ton. [Fr.] The cotton plant is an annual, 
and belongs to the same order as the marsh¬ 
mallow and the hollyhock. Originally it was a 
native of Asia, but it is now cultivated in almost 
all warm countries, especially in the southern 

portions of 
the United 
States, India, 
China, Egypt, 
Brazil, and the 
West Indies. 
The plant 
grows to vari¬ 
ous heights in 
different coun¬ 
tries, varying from 2 or 6 feet to 9 or 10 feet. Its 
leaves are dark green, and its flowers are large 
and usually white or bright yellow. As each 
flower drops a seed-pod takes its place. These 
pods are three-sided, and about the size of a wal¬ 
nut. When ripe these pods burst open, showing 
within a mass of white fibres, which are the 
snowy balls of cotton. The pods are gathered 
and the cotton taken out and dried. The seeds 
are removed by the cotton-gin, a machine with 
revolving cylinders, covered with sharp teeth, 
which tear the seeds from the cotton. The cot¬ 
ton is then pressed into large bales. In making 
cotton cloth, the cotton is thoroughly cleaned Ly 
a cotton-picker, carded, and spun into long, fine 
threads for the warp or for cross-threads. The 
spinning-wheel formerly did this, one thread at 
a time. Hargreaves invented “the jenny,” by 
which eight threads could be produced at the 
same time. Continued improvements have made 
the machinery so perfect as to render the process 
of spinning easy and rapid. Sewing cotton is 
made by twisting together several of the fine 
fibres, and winding on reels or bobbins. The 
weaving of cotton consists in crossing and re- 
crossing the threads in a loom to form cloth. 
















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


43 


The threads which extend the length of the cloth 
form the warp ; the threads crossing from side to 
side form the woof or weft. The fabrics made from 
cotton include gingham (where the yarn is dyed 
before being woven), cambric, muslin, lawn, 
calico, chintz (a kind of heavy calico, gaily col¬ 
ored), corduroy, velveteen, wincey, and other 
stuffs mixed with silk or wool. 

Cotton=Seed Oil. The seeds of the cotton plant, 
which are left in large quantities after the extrac¬ 
tion of the cotton fibre, have become valuable as 
a source of oil, which, when clarified, is of a 
clear golden-yellow color. It is used as an 
adulterant or a substitute for linseed, sperm, 
lard, olive, and almond oil, for cooking in place of 
lard or butter, and for other purposes. A large 
proportion of the salad oil used in the United 
States is Cotton-Seed oil. The “cake,” which 
is left after the oil is pressed from the seeds, is 
used as a fodder for cattle and as a fertilizer. 

Cow. [O.E.] A hoofed, herbivorous animal, 
which is one of the most useful of all animals to 
man. It is somewhat smaller than the horse, has 
long, smooth horns, large, gentle eyes, and a 

tufted tail. 
Its hoofs are 
cloven, kike 
the horse, 
it is a grass- 
eater ; and, 
like the 
sheep, it 
chews the 
cud. (See 
Digestion.) 
W e seldom 
take a meal 
but some of 
the food we 
eat or drink 
is supplied 
by this use¬ 
ful animal. 

THE CRANE. I t gives 3 . 

large quantity of milk, which is used either as it 
comes from the cow, in cooking, or made into 
butter and cheese. Its flesh is called beef (q.v.)\ 
its fat is made into tallow, from which caudles 
and soap are made ; its skin is tanned and made 
into boots, shoes, harness, and other leather 
articles ; its hair is mixed with plaster ; its hoofs 
are made into glue ; its horns are made into 
combs, spoons, buttons, and the handles of 
knives and forks ; and in some countries in 
Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, oxen are 
used as beasts of burden or to draw the plough. 
There are many different breeds, some of which 
are useful for dairy purposes, others yield good 
beef. 

Cou'gar. A large American animal of the cat 
family, resembling the panther but smaller. It 
is often called panther (or painter). It is also 
called the puma, and formerly was known as the 
catamount, or mountain cat. It crouches in trees 
in the forests and springs on passing deer. In 
South America it kills and feeds on wild cattle. 


Cow / ry. [Hind.] A small sea-shell, somewhat 
like a coffee berry and used as money in Siam 
and Africa. The shell is produced by the 
mollusc, and the spots on its surface are made by 
a coloring matter secreted by the mantle. 

Cow / slip. [AS.] A kind of primrose with several 
flowers on one stalk appearing early in the spring. 

Cow=tree. [Span.] An evergreen tree found in 
Venezuela, first discovered by Humboldt. The 
sap flows freely when the bark is wounded ; and 
it is safe to drink freely, for the fluid, which has 
the color and taste of milk, is not only cool but 
refreshing and nutritious. It is, however, acrid 
and bitter. Also called the traveller’s tree. 

Crab. [AS.] A shell fish with strong claws, and 
a tail tucked underneath its body. The eyes of 
crabs are on long stalks, and may be turned 
about or folded back into little grooves in the 
shell. Crabs breathe by gills, and a crab’s heart 
consists of a single sac. They shed their shells 



at intervals, and while the new shell is growing 
is known as soft-shell crabs. These are esteemed 
as food in the United States. In the tropics 
some species of crabs live in the fresh water of 
the rivers; others in the damp forests, visiting 
the sea-shore to deposit their eggs ; others, like 
the land-crabs of Jamaica, live on the mountain 
tops. The hermit crab is a curious animal with¬ 
out a shell for its soft body ; so it seeks to shelter 
its body in some empty shell, and when it out¬ 
grows one shell hunts for a larger one, some¬ 
times turning out the living owner of a shell it 
wishes. The fiddler crab has one claw much 
larger than the other,developed by fighting, which 
it holds up as it walks sideways. The females 
of the pea crabs, or oyster crabs, live in oyster 
shells, and go out and in at will. Horse-shoe 
crabs, or king crabs, the largest crabs, are dark 
brown, and have long, stiff tails. 

CrarUberry. [AS.] A red berry with a sour taste, 
growing on a stalk like the neck of a crane. It 
is cultivated in Europe and the United States, 
the American plant bearing larger berries. It is 
used in tarts, and is cooked with sugar as a des¬ 
sert. 

Crane. [iVS.] A long-legged, long necked wading- 
bird. Cranes are either white or brown, and are 
without crest plumes on their heads, except the 
African crowned crane, which has an upright tuft 
on its head. They are remarkable for their long 
migrations twice every year, and for their perfect 

619 


























44 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


discipline on these journeys. The Greeks and 
Romans esteemed the flesh of the crane as a 
delicacy. 

Crane. A machine for lifting and lowering weights, 
and, while holding them suspended, carrying 
them a short distance to the side. 

Crank. [O.E.] A bent portion of an axle or shaft 
or an arm keyed at right angles to the end of a 
shaft, by which motion is directed or received. 

Cray'on. [Fr.] A pencil of colored chalk. A 
pencil of carbon used in producing electric light. 

Cream. [Fr.] Cream is milk-fat, and rises above 
the watery particles of the milk. When cream 
is examined with a microscope, it is seen to 
be composed of very small balls of fat, each of 
which has a skin or covering of curd. By churn¬ 
ing, the skin of curd is broken, and the little 
lumps of fat unite to form the yellow solid called 
blitter. (See Curds) — Cold-cream, an ointment 
of white wax, almond oil, rose-water, and borax, 
used as a salve. 

Cream of Tartar. An alkaline tartrate, known as 
the bitartrate of potash. As prepared from argol— 
a deposit from grape-juice—it is a white crystal¬ 
line substance, and the crystals, when reduced to 
powder, form the cream of tartar. It dissolves 
readily in hot water, but sparingly in cold. It is 
used in medicine. 

Cre / matory. Within recent times burning instead 
of burying dead bodies has come into use to some 
extent, and is growing in popularity. Crema¬ 
tories or furnaces for this purpose exist in several 
of our large cities. 

CreairFery. A factory for the production of but¬ 
ter. Creameries are now widely in use in the 
United States, their effect being cheapness in 
production and a better and more uniform quality 
of butter than that made on the farm. 

Cre'osote. One of the substances derived from 
the tar obtained from the distillation of wood. 
It differs chemically from the creosote obtained 
by distilling coal-tar. Wood creosote coagulates 
albumen, but does not coagulate collodion ; 
which distinguishes it from carbolic acid, the 
leading product of coal creosote. It has great 
antiseptic power, hence its name (Gk. kreas , 
flesh ; and sozein , to preserve). A piece of meat 
steeped in it does not putrify. Both wood and 
coal-tar creosote are used as preservatives for 
timber placed in the ground. 

Cress. [AS.] A plant which grows in moist places, 
used as a salad. The leaves have a pungent taste, 
and are anti scorbutic. 

Crick'et. [Fr.] An insect with a sharp voice 
found under the floors of houses in Europe. 
Whatever is moist they seek for, and they will 
eat yeast, crumbs, milk, or kitchen refuse. The 
noise of the cricket is produced by the male. He 
raises his horny wing-cases and rubs them briskly 
together. The sound he makes is cree-cree., 
hence his name. In Africa crickets are fed in a 
kind of iron oven and sold to the natives, who 
esteem them because their noise lulls to sleep. 
The field-cricket feeds on herbs that grow at the 
mouth of its burrows, and in summer they sit 
there chirping all night and day. 

620 



nies. In the colleges and cities of the Eastern 
States it has become popular. Eleven men make 
a team. The man with the bai stands in front of 
the wicket, which is three upright stakes with 
two short bails or sticks resting on their top, 
when these are knocked off the player is out. 
The ball is bowled with an over-hand throw with 
the purpose of knocking the wicket. 

Crochet. [Fr.] Knitting by a hooked needle 
with cotton, worsted, or silk. 

Croc / odile. [Gk.] A large and fierce animal 
found in the Nile and other rivers of Africa, also 
in Asia and America. It grows to 16 or 18 feet in 
length. The mouth of the crocodile has no lips 
to cover its strong teeth, which are firmly set in . 
pits in the jaw, with a new tooth staited below 
the root of each tooth. The fourth tooth in the 
lower jaw is longer than the other teeth, and when 
the mouth is closed it reaches up over the upper 
jaw. The crocodile bird enters its mouth in pur¬ 
suit of insects which infest its mouth. The hide 
of the crocodile is tough, and is composed of 
plates of bone covered with horny scales. Its tail 
is useful in swimming, and also in the capture 
of its prey. It strikes large animals with it, and 
by it holds them under the water till they drown. 
Its neck is wanting in flexibility, and so it has 
much difficulty in turning. Its eggs are laid in 
the sand, and hatched by the heat of the sun. 
Alligators are like crocodiles, but they are 
smaller, and their feet are not so completely 
webbed, and they are found only in American 
waters. 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


45 


Cro'cus. [L.] A flower white in color in wild 
state; cultivated forms are yellow or purple; 
rising from the bulb, blossoming early in spring. 
One species, the saffron, blossoms in autumn. 

Cross. [Fr., from L.] Two pieces of wood laid 
one across the other, either simple cross T, or 
St. Andrew’s Cross x> or St. Anthony’s Cross j, 
or the Latin Cross "f. 

Crow. [AS.] A genus of birds, related to the 
magpies, nutcrackers, jays, and other forms, 
file Crows have long, strong, and compressed 
bills, with the ridge of the mandible more or less 
curved, and the tip notched ; the wings are 
usually long, the tarsi covered with broad plates, 
and toes of moderate length. They feed not only 
on grain and fruit, but on animal substances, and 
some species on carrion. They all make large 
nests of sticks, lined with soft hair or down, and 
lay eggs with dark spots on pale-bluish, green- 



CKYSTALS. 


ish, or white ground. True crows include the 
raven, the carrion crow, the hooded crow, and 
the rook. The rook and jackdaw are gregarious, 
the rook nesting on trees, and the jackdaw on 
high buildings, such as church towers. The 
raven, carrion crow, and hooded crow all feed on 
carrion, and are fond of eggs, and young birds 
or rabbits. The American crow resembles the 
carrion crow, but is smaller, and after the breed¬ 
ing season gathers in large flocks. Its fondness 
for grain and seeds is an annoyance to the farmer, 
but it repays him by devouring large numbers of 
worms and larvae. It is one of the most intelli¬ 
gent of birds. The fish crow of the United States 
is very expert in catching river and sea fish. 

Crown. [Fr.] An ornamental head-dress fora 
king or queen. Nobles wear coronets, the pope 
a triple crown or tiara. The crown of England 
is a circle of gold with crosses, fleur-de-lis, and 
imperial arches, enclosing a velvet cap, and set 
in diamonds and precious stones. 

CriFcible. A vessel or pot for the melting of 
glass or metals. It is made of some substance 
which will stand a great heat, usually clay mixed 
with black-lead, sand, or other refractory sub¬ 
stance. F'or the use of chemists crucibles are 
made of platinum, silver, porcelain, blacklead. 

Crui 7 ser. In modern navies a cruiser is a ship-of- 
war, armored or unarinored, designed for cruis¬ 
ing, and lighter in armament than the battleship, 
while higher in speed. « 


Crystals. [Gk.] The term applied in chemistry 
and mineralogy to those bodies which have 
assumed a regular geometrical form, in contra¬ 
distinction to those substances which are amor¬ 
phous. Although there are numerous varieties 
of crystalline form, they can all be reduced to 
six primary systems. These are distinguished 
from each other by the number and position of 
the axes , which are mathematical straight lines 
assumed to intersect each other in the centre of 
the crystal, and to connect the opposite faces of 
the crystal or its opposite corners. Each substance 
which crystallizes possesses a definite form, 
serving as one of the marks to distinguish it 
from other substances. 

Cuck / oo. [O.E] A climbing and perching bird, 
about twice the size of a lark, which feeds on 
caterpillars, grubs, and insects. The cuckoo 
does not build a nest, but places her eggs in the 
nests of other birds. Sometimes the birds turn 
the strange egg out, but ofiener the mother bird 
takes it under her care and hatches it with her 
own. Though the cuckoo egg is small, the 
young cuckoo is larger than those young birds in 
the same nest, and turns all the other young 
birds out, and often kills them. The tree- 
cuckoos of America also have this peculiarity. 
The cuckoo is called “ the harbinger of spring,” 
because it comes over the sea when winter is 
gone, and its cry of “ Cuckoo ! cuckoo ! ” seems 
to say that spring is come. The Arabs think the 
bird says “ Yakub ! ” hence they call it Yakub’s 
(or Jacob’s) bird. 

Cu'cumber. [L-] A creeping plant, with fruit 
of a long and usually curved shape, used for 
salads, either fresh or pickled. 

CuracoaL A liqueur or cordial, flavored with 
orange-peel, cinnamon, and mace; first made at 
the island of Curagoa, in the Dutch West Indies. 

Curds. [Celt.] The thickened part of milk. If 
a weak acid be added to milk, solid whitish 
lumps of curd separate from a watery liquid 
called 7 vhey. If, instead of a weak acid, an acid 
fluid obtained by soaking the stomach of a 
young calf in salt water, which is called rennet , 
is used, it quickly and completely coagulates the 
curd and separates it from the whey. When 
curds are analyzed, they are found to be com¬ 
posed of a substance known as casein , which 
contains nitrogen, and is classed with the nitro¬ 
genous or flesh-forming food-stuffs. 

Cur / lew. [Fr.] A sea-bird which neither swims 
nor dives, and leaves the shore in summer for 
the inland country, where it nests and rears its 
young. In the autumn and winter months flocks 
of curlews may be seen at the sea-shore feeding 
on small crabs, shrimps, and worms. The curlew 
is about two feet in length, and when its wings 
are spread out they measure three feet from tip 
to tip. It makes its nest on the ground among 
dry grass, and lays in it four greenish eggs spot¬ 
ted with brown. It is easily tamed, and is 
common in Europe, North America, and some 
parts of Asia. 

Cur'rant. [F'r., from Gk. korinlhos.'] A small 
seedless raisin from Corinth ; the fruit of several 

621 










4 6 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


shrubs, as common red-currant, white currant, 
and black currant, used for jams or jellies; also 
the flowering currant, with showy white, red, or 
yellow flowers. 

Current, Electric. A quantity of electrical force 
conveyed along a wire, from an electric machine, 
a galvanic battery, or a dynamo, and employed 
for producing sparks, operating motors, etc. 

Cutlery. All kinds of table, hunting, butchers’ 
and cooks’ knives and forks; razors, pocket- 
knives, scissors, and shears. Also surgical, dis¬ 
secting and dental instruments are sometimes 
included. 

Cut / tle=fish. A form of mollusc, without an ex¬ 
ternal shell, somewhat like the octopus, but with 
two tentacles longer than the arms and with club- 
shaped ends and curious suckers. There are also 
narrow fins at the sides of the body ; and the 
mantle is supported on the inside by a thin 
plate, which is known as cuttle-fish bone. 


Dace. A small fish of the Carp family, found in 
clear and quiet streams in Europe. It makes 
good sport for the angler, and its flesh is pre¬ 
ferred to that of the roach, but is not highly 
esteemed. 

Da'do. [Ital. a cube.] The solid part of the 
pedestal of a statue ; the lower part of the wall 
of a room when ornamented with mouldings or 
differently from the rest. 

DafTodil. [Fr.] A kind of lily or narcissus, with 
a bulbous root and beautiful flowers, usually 
yellow ; called daffadowndilly . 

Daguerre'otype. The predecessor of the photo¬ 
graph ; the method of printing pictures of 
natural objects discovered by Louis Daguerre, 
and made known in 1839. The images were 
impressed on a silver plate, made very sensitive 
to light by a coating of iodide and bromide of 
silver. The daguerreotypes were not very 
permanent, and have been replaced by photo¬ 
graphs. (See Photography.') 

DahTia. [Swed. A. Dahl , a botanist.] A tuber¬ 
ous plant, with a large and beautiful single or 
double flower. It is a native of Mexico and 
Central America ; but the cultivated varieties are 
numerous—more than two thousand—with bright 
and varied colors. The first roots were carried 
to Europe by Humboldt in 1790. 

Dai'ry. [Scaud.] A place for keeping milk and 
making butter and cheese. A dairy should be 
lofty, well built, and roofed with slate, the 
windows covered with gauze wire, the floors and 
walls overlaid with smooth, polished tiles, and 
the shelves of slate or marble. It should be cool, 
dry, clean, and well ventilated, and furnished 
with pails, coolers, sieves, bowls (either of 
earthenware or glass), dishes for skimming milk, 
plunge or barrel churns for making butter, 
slices, scales, and weights. A system of dairy 
factories or associated dairies was instituted in 
the United States in i860, and has developed so 
greatly that there are now more than 1000 in 

622 


These are used in bird-cages. They are not like 
true bone, but are formed of layers like shells, 
with a hard covering, and the birds peck small 
particles of lime from them. 

Cy / cIone. [Gk.] A great storm moving in a cir¬ 
cle or spiral, which may be less than c oo or more 
than 2,000 miles in diameter. It is attended 
with violent winds and heavy rains, and some¬ 
times does immense damage. The storm moves 
slowly or rapidly forward. The Anti-cyclone is 
opposite to the cyclone, its winds blowing out 
from instead of towards a centre. 

Cyl'inder. [Gk.] A long, round body, the ends 
of which are equal circles opposite to each other. 

Cym'bal. [Gk.] A musical instrument formed 
of two metal plates, which are clashed together. 

Cy / press. [L-] An evergreen tree, often planted 
in grave-yards. Its wood is remarkable for great 
durability, and yields a healing balsam. 


the State of New York alone, and the system 
has been introduced into several countries of 
Europe. They were at first confined to cheese¬ 
making, but many of them now make butter 
and cheese, and there are numerous creameries 
{q.v.), making butter only. 

Dai'sy. [AS., day’s eye.] A small wild flower, 
with a white rim of petals arranged like a star, 
and a yellow centre. The flower is held in a 
green cup, on a short, wiry stalk rising from 
thick green leaves. It grows in fields or by the 
wayside, and is found low down in the grass. It 
blooms from early spring to late in autumn, opens 
when the sun shines and closes at night. Ox-eye 
daisy, ortlie Daisy ofNorli Americans also called 
the whiteweed. ' It is a kind of chrysanthemum. 

DanUask. [Damascus.] Cloth of silk, linen, or 
wool, with figures woven on it by different 
directions of thread without change of color, 
first made at Damascus. Damask is woven with 
a twill, in which the weft threads skip eight of 
the warp. In diaper cloth the weft skips five 
instead of eight. 

Dancers, Eastern. Young women of the East¬ 
ern countries noted in the dance for their grace¬ 
ful and rhythmic movements. 

Dan'delion. [L. dens leonis , a lions tooth.] 
An herb common in Europe and the United 
States, with large yellow compound flowers, 
and leaves with jagged or notched edges. The 
root is mixed with coffee, and is a useful tonic, 
and the young leaves are used as a salad. 

Darwinian Theory. The theory of natural 
selection , advanced in 1859 by Charles Darwin, 
which maintains that all species of animals and 
plants are derived from older species by a process 
of survival of the individuals best adapted to 
the surrounding conditions of nature, and hered¬ 
itary transmission of their superior structure. 

Date. [Fr.] The date palm-tree and its fruit. 
The fruit is shaped like an olive, is sweet and 
wholesome, and has & hard kernel. It is the 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Deep Sea Exploration. Dredging the ocean 
depths to discover the conditions there existing. 
Many expeditions have been sent out for this 
purpose, the most interesting discovery being the 
fact that numerous animals, of peculiar forms, 
inhabit the ocean at great depths, numbers of 
them being brilliantly phosphorescent, and thus 
lighting up their dark abode. 

Deer. [AS.] A family of ruminating animals, 
with slender limbs, and large antlers or horns on 
the head of the male animal. These are solid, 
and are shed annually in the spring; but new 
ones grow rapidly and send out branches, so that 
in a few months the deer has another pair of 
horns, each year’s antlers increasing in size till 
the seventh year, after which they get smaller. 
The deer feed on vegetable substances, and they 
are wont to swallow large quantities without 



chief article of food of the natives ot Arabia 
and North Africa, and is their principal source 
of wealth. The tree rises to a height of 60 feet, 
with a crown of large feathery leaves and flower- 



stalks, and white flowers that are followed by the 
fruit in bunches. The leaves are used as thatch, 
the sap by fermentation is made into wine, and 
the wood is useful for furniture and in building. 

Da / vit. [Fr.] A piece of timber used for keeping 
the anchor clear of the ship’s side when being 
hoisted ; />/., arms of iron over a ship’s side or 
stern from which a boat is hung, ready to be let 
down or to be raised. 

Day. [AS.] A word originally used to indicate 
the period of time during which it was light, in 
contrast to night or the period of darkness. 
This usage still exists, but a day in its civil or 
legal sense, is now the period between midnight 
and the succeeding miduight, or 24 hours. The 
siderial day, which is based on a seeming revo¬ 
lution of the stars, instead of the sun, is shorter, 
being 23 hrs. 56 min. 49 sec. Astronomers 
reckon the day as beginning at noon, and count 
the hours from 1 to 24. 

Dea'cors. A person in the lowest degree of holy 
orders. In the Roman Catholic Church the 
deacon acts as an assistant to the priest, and 
may preach and baptize with the permission of 
the bishop. In the Church of England he can 
exercise nearly all priestly functions. In the 
Presbyterian, Baptist and other Churches the 
deacon or elder is an officer selected to assist the 
minister in the direction of religious affairs. 

DecanFer. [Fr.] A large glass or bottle for 
holding liquor free from sediment, from which 
drinking glasses are filled. 

Deck. [Du.] The upper floor or covering of a 
ship. The name, however, in a large vessel is 
applied to the beith deck, where the sailors’ 
hammocks are hung ; the gun-deck ; half-deck, 
the part below the spar-deck; hurricane-deck ; 
orlop-deck, where the cables are stowed ; poop- 
deck, with a cabin ; quarter deck, including 
poop-deck ; spar-deck, or upper deck. 


much chewing, and masticate at their leisure ; 
this they can do because they have a compli¬ 
cated stomach divided into four chambers. (See 
Digestion .) The reindeer is found in the north 
of Europe and America. It is used for drawing 
sleds ; and its flesh and milk supply the natives 
with food, and its skin with covering. It eats 
moss and lichen. The horns of the wapiti, or 
Canadian red deer, weigh more than 60 pounds. 
The moose, or elk, is the giant of the Deer tribe. 
The fallow deer has palmated horns. The musk 
deer is about 20 inches in height. The musk, 
from which it is named, is secreted in the abdo¬ 
men.— Deer-stalking , hunting the stag by steal¬ 
ing on it unawares. 

Degree 7 . [Fr.] The 360th part of a circle ; 60 
geographical miles ; the unit of measure for arcs 
and angles ; divided into 60 minutes, and each of 
these into 60 seconds ; also a distinction con¬ 
ferred on graduates of a college or university. 

623 











48 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Honorary degrees are conferred on persons of 
distinction without examination as to their at¬ 
tainments. 

Delf. A kind of earthenware made at Delft, in 
Holland ; also any glazed earthenware for table 
use made in imitation of that. 

Denudation. The removal of solid matter by the 
flow of water in streams, or the action of the 
waves and currents of the seas. The process is 
continuous in regions of plentiful rainfall, the 
surface layers of the earth being gradually car¬ 
ried away to deposit in bays and seas. 

Dev / il=rish or Octopus. A highly organized 
mollusc without an external shell, and some¬ 
times of great size. Its head has large staring 
eyes, aud its eight arms or feet have two rows of 
suckers, which adhere to auimals or objects by a 
curious mouth with two long teeth. Within its 
body is a sac with an inky fluid, which it throws 
from a funnel in its mouth when alarmed. This 
ink is used as sepia, or India ink. The name 
devil-fish is sometimes applied to the fishing- 
frog , and in America to a gigantic species of ray , 
one of which has been found in Delaware Bay 
weighing 5 tons. 

Dew. [AS.] The name given to the drops c f 
water which are seen on the leaves of plants on 
bright mornings, more especially in the spring 
and autumn. The air contains aqueous vapor, 
and the amount of vapor which the air will 
carry increases as the temperature of the air 
rises, and diminishes as it falls. When the air 
contains as much vapor as it is capable of taking 
up at any particular temperature, it is said to be 
saturated ; and when it is cooled below the 
point of saturation, condensation takes place, 
aiid the moisture deposited in this way from the 
atmosphere is termed dew. The temperature at 
which dew begins to be deposited is termed the 
dew-point. When the sky is clouded, the greater 
part of the heat radiated by the earth is reflected 
back from the clouds, and the temperature of the 
air does not sink to the dew-point. It will be found 
that on cloudy nights there is no deposition of 
dew. The air should be still, otherwise no air 
remains long enough in contact with the ground 
to be cooled to the dew-point. 

Dew'berry. An American species of blackberry, 
with prostrate stems, abundant in dry, stony 
fields from Canada to Virginia. Its fruit is of 
large size and delicious taste, being much supe¬ 
rior to the high blackberry. There is a British 
fruit of the same name, but not nearly so pala¬ 
table. 

Di'al. [L. dies, aday.] An instrument constructed 
to show the hour of the day from the position of 
the shadow of a style cast by the sun 011 the face 
of a dial-plate. It consists of a straight rod or 
style attached to a plane surface, which is gradu¬ 
ated in such a way that the shadow points to the 
correct time of day as shown by the sun. The 
style is placed in a direction parallel to the earth’s 
axis. The time shown by a sun-dial is true solar 
time. 

624 


Diamond. [Fr., from Gk. adamantos.'] The 
hardest and next to the ruby the most valuable 
of gems. Chemically, it is pure, crystallized car¬ 
bon, its crystalline form belonging to the regular 
or cubic system, having generally eight or twelve 

faces. The best dia- 
m onds are perfectly 
clear and colorless, and 
are described as being 
of the first water. The 
peculiar lustre of the 
diamond distinguishes 
it from all other sub¬ 
stances, aud the vivid 
brightness and intense 
the ORLOFF diamond. g 1 o w of i t s reflec- 
tions are unsurpassed by any other stone. It is 
also distinguished from other gems by its ex¬ 
treme hardness. The value of a diamond is 
greatly enhanced by cutting. This industry was 
at one time confined almost exclusively to Am¬ 
sterdam, but it is now carried on in other places. 
Diamonds are cut iu two forms—the brilliant 
and the rose cut. The former brings out better 
the beauty of the stone. The dust is used by the 
lapidary and the gem-engraver, and the stone is 
used for jewelling watches and in cutting glass, 
and for the latter purpose it must not be cut. In¬ 
ferior sorts are used by engineers in rock-boring, 
and by copper-plate engravers as etching-points. 
Diamonds are found in India and Borneo, and 
sometimes in North America and Australia; 
but the chief diamond fields of the present day 
are those of South Africa and Brazil. They were 
first discovered in South Africa in 1867, existing 
there in a blueish earth, from which they are 
washed out. An immense number of diamonds, 
of great collective value, have been obtained 
from these mines. Among the large diamonds 
found the most famous is the Koh-i-noor, which 
has a very interesting history. Others are the 
Great Mogul, the Orloff, the Regent, and the 
Saucy. 

DFaper. [Fr., corrupted from Gk. iaspis, jasper.] 
lyinen or cotton cloth or towelling, woven with 
constantly-repeated figures like iasper. (See 
Damask.) 

DFaphragm. [Gk.] A muscle crossing the body, 
separating the chest from the abdomen, and 
forming a movable partition between these two 
cavities, its most important office being con¬ 
nected with the function of respiration. 

DFatoms. The name of a family of minute plants, 
inhabiting seas and rivers, each consisting of a 
single organic cell, inclosed iu a double case of 
silica, the two halves fitting together like a box 
and its lid. They exist in vast multitudes and 
of many different forms, being visible only under 
the microscope. 

Die. [F.] A stamp, often one of a pair, used in 
marking coins, iu forging metals, and in striking 
sheet metal. Dies are always made of the finest 
steel, and the figures on the die are cut by small 
steel tools. Book-stamps are cut iu brass instead 
of steel. 















I 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Digestion. [L,.] The power of dissolving and 
distributing food over the body. All vertebrates 
have a mouth, which is generally furnished with 
teeth. The food is mostly cut and divided in the 
mouth and mixed with saliva, after which it is 
swallowed and digested in the stomach ( q.v.) by 
gastric juice, and in the intestines by bile and 
pancreatic juice, the nutritious portions being 
absorbed in the blood. In shell-fish, after food is 
crushed by hard plates in the stomach and mixed 
with saliva, it passes into a long intestine, where 
the nutritious parts are absorbed into the blood. 
Insects pass the food into a crop and then into a 
gizzard, where it is crushed and passed into the 
true stomach and intestines. 

DigitaTis. A genus of plants of which the best 
known species is the common foxglove, which 
bears handsome flowers—large, rosy, spotted 
within with white and purple, and hanging 
gracefully. The leaves have an acrid, bitter taste, 
and an overdose of them is poisonous. Em¬ 
ployed in small doses, digitalis is a useful medi¬ 
cine, being very useful in diseases of the heart, 
and in inflammation. 

Dike. [AS.] Earth dug out and raised up in a 
bank ; also a wall of turf or stone. In geology, 
a volcanic rock filling up fissures in the strata. 

Dim / ity. [E] A cotton cloth used for curtains. 
It is plain or twilled, sometimes in colors. 

Diphtheria. A very malignant disease of the 
throat, mainly attacking children, and often 
fatal. It is a contagious disease, due to the 
presence of noxious bacteria, and has been suc¬ 
cessfully treated by inoculation with an anti¬ 
toxin, or serum, produced by culture of diph¬ 
theria germs. 

Dip'ping-nee'dle. An instrument for measuring 

the dip or inclination of the 
compass needle to the hori¬ 
zon, and from this fact it is 
also termed the inclination 
compass. It consists of a 
magnetic needle very accur¬ 
ately mounted on a hori¬ 
zontal axis. 

Disc or Disk. [AS., from 
Gk.] The round surface of 
a plate or star. In owls, the 
space around the eyes. A 
disc engine is a kind of ro¬ 
tary engine. 

Disinfect'ant. An agent for 
destroying the germs of in¬ 
fectious diseases, or for re¬ 
moving by oxidation the 
organic matter i n which 
germs develop. Some of 
dipping needle. the substances used for this 
purpose are sulphurous acid, obtained by burning 
sulphur, corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), 
chloride of lime, carbolic acid, Condy’s fluid, and 
green vitriol (ferrous sulphate). 

Distillation. This process consists in boiling a 
liquid and condensing the vapor which is formed. 
The liquid, which we may suppose to be water, 

40 


is heated in a vessel. The steam or vapor, as 
soon as it is formed, is made to pass through a 
coil of pipes, placed in a vessel of cold water. 

While passing 
through this 
coil, the vapor 
parts with its 
heat to the 
cold water, 
and o n cou- 
d e n s i n g is 
drawn f r o m 
the end of the 
worm. The 
vessel must 
be constantly 

replenished with cold water, and the heated 
water allowed to run off, otherwise the conden¬ 
sation would soon cease. The object of distilla¬ 
tion is generally to free the liquid from any im¬ 
purities it may contain, and also to separate a 
more volatile liquid from one less so, such as 
alcohol from water. 

Div'ing-bell. An apparatus in which persons may 
be let down and remain for a considerable time 
under water without much inconvenience or 
danger. It is a large vessel, closed at the top 
and sides, but open at the bottom. It takes 
its name from having been originally shaped 
somewhat like a bell ; but it is now generally 
made square at the top and bottom, the bottom 
being somewhat larger than the top. The bell 
is used in blasting rocks under water, in examin¬ 
ing the foundations of piers and bridges, and in 
recovering stores and treasures from sunken ves¬ 
sels. A code of signals has been arranged by 
which those below can make known their wishes 
to others stationed at the top. Dresses have now 
been devised which enable divers to work under 
water without the aid of a diving-bell. The dress 
is made of india-rubber cloth, and covers the 
entire body. The head is covered by a helmet 
provided with eye-holes covered with strong 
glass. Air is supplied through a tube which enters 
the head-piece, and is connected with an air-pump 
above. A dress of this kind is now much used by 
those who dive for pearls, sponges, and coral. 

Dock. [Du.] An artificial place with gates, for 
ships being loaded or unloaded. The dockyard 
is the place near the dock where stores for ships 
are kept. A dry dock is one from which the water 
has been pumped out, and is fitted with appli¬ 
ances for making or repairing ships, and includes 
graving-dock, floating-dock, and hydraulic dock. 
A zuet dock is the name for a dock with water shut 
in at a fixed level, and opened or shut accord¬ 
ing to the state of the tide. 

Dog. [O E.] The dog is a carnivorous quadruped, 
and belongs to the same family as the fox, the 
wolf, and the jackal. It has long been domesti¬ 
cated, and is the faithful companion of man, hav¬ 
ing followed him into every part of the world. 
There are many varieties, which are carefully 
bred. They include the large and useful Eskimo, 
Newfoundland, and St. Bernard breeds ; the 
various long and slender hounds, the pointer, 

625 

































50 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


setter, and other hunting dogs ; the alert little 
terrier ; the water-loving spaniel ; the watchful 
mastiff; the fine and powerful bull-dog; the 
highly intelligent collie or sheep-dog, and va¬ 
rious others. 

Dog-fish. A small shark of many kinds. The 
European spotted dogfish is abundant ; the 
American dogfish is sometimes called the blue 
dogfish ; the common dogfish, both in America 
and Europe, is horned. 

Dog 7 star. Sirius, the brightest of the fixed stars 
in the Canis Major or Greater Dog constellation. 
The conjunction of the rising of the dogstar with 
the rising of the sun was thought by the ancients 
to be the cause of the great heat of summer and 
the consequent sickness, and the period of six 
weeks from the middle of July was hence named 
dog-days. 

Dog'wood. The American dogwood is a small 
but very ornamental tree, bearing flowers sur¬ 
rounded with large white bracts, and scarlet ber¬ 
ries in winter. The bark is a useful febrifuge. 
The European dogwood is a shrub whose foliage 
becomes deep-red in autumn. Its wood is very 
hard, and is used lor skewers, cogs for wheels, 
etc., and also makes the best charcoal for gun¬ 
powder. 

DoElar. [Sax.] A silver coin of different value in 
different countries. In the United States the silver 
dollar weighs 412]^ grains. The name is an ab¬ 
breviation of Joachim’s thaler, first coined in 
1518 in St. Joachim’s Valley, Bohemia. 

Dolphin. [Fr.] A mamrtial smaller than the 
true whale, and common in all seas. It is more 
elegant than the porpoise, and is distinguished 
by its long snout. Dolphins follow vessels in 
companies, leaping out of the water and tumb¬ 
ling about. They chase flying-fish relentlessly, 
and prey on small fish, and often follow them 
into shallow waters or up rivers. In color the 
dolphin is black above and white below, but it is 
said to change its color when dying. Its head is 
peculiarly shaped—round above and long like a 
beak. 

Dom / ino. [Ital.] A kind of hood worn by the 
canons of a cathedral ; a mask. Also a small 
piece of wood, bone, or ivory marked by from 
one to six dots, or blank, for playing the game 
of dominoes. The game is played by matching 
the dots. 

Dor / mouse. A small rodent animal that sleeps in 
winter. It lays up a winter store of nuts, and 
does not bury them, but prefers to hide them in 
the tree, which serves for a home. It weaves a 
nest of grass blades, like that of the harvest 
mouse. 

Dove. [AS.] A bird of the genus Columba. It is 
the same as the pigeon, there being no distinc¬ 
tion in the terms. The European turtle-dove 
has a sweet plaintive note ; the ring-dove is the 
largest; the sea-dove is the little auk. 

Dove 7 tail. [O.E.] The ends of two boards fitted 
into each other by one being cut the shape of a 
dove’s tail. The one is called a tenon, and the 
other the mortise or socket. 

626 


Drag 7 on. [Fr., from Gk., a serpent.] A fabulous 
winged serpent; a small tree-lizard or flying- 
lizard of several kinds found in the East Indies 



and Southern Asia. Five or six of the hind ribs 
on each side are prolonged and covered with a 
web-like skin, forming a kind of wing. This 
wing aids it in flying or leaping from tree to tree. 

Drag / on=fly. An insect with a large head and 
great eyes, and a white, scarlet, blue, and green 
long sharp body, and four strong gossamer-like 
wings. It preys on flies, gnats, mosquitoes, and 
butterflies. It lives mostly about water, and 
lays its eggs in the water, in which the larvae 
are hatched. The pupas are not inactive, as in 
many insects, but are voracious insect-eaters. 

Dragoon 7 . [Span.] A soldier who used to fight 
either on foot or horseback, with a musket 
carved with dragons; a horse-soldier with a 
helmet. 

Drain. [AS.] An arrangement of channels for 
draining off water from houses or fields. House- 
drains are glazed and water-tight. 

Drainage=tubes. A recent appliance used in 
surgery. The tubes are of india-rubber, perfor¬ 
ated with numerous holes, and are introduced 
into chronic abscesses and large wounds to draw 
off the pus as formed. In some cases tubes of 
glass, or of decalcified bones are employed. 

Draughts. A game for two persons, each with 
twelve round pieces of different colors, played 
on a board marked with black and white squares. 

Dredge. [Fr., from Du.] A scoop for bringing 
up mud from the bottom so as to deepen rivers 
or docks ; also a drag-net to sweep the bottom of 
streams or seas for other purposes. 

Drill. [Du.] An instrument for boring, usually 
with an edged or pointed end, and cutting by 
revolving. Diamond drill is a rod set with 
diamonds for boring rock. 

DrorrFedary. [Low L.] The African or Arabian 
camel, which has but one hump. . (See Camel.) 

Dross. [AS.] The impure portion or dregs which 
sinks to the bottom, or the scum which rises to 
the top, especially from metals when ore is 
smelted. 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


5i 


Drug. [Fr., or from dry.~\ Something dried to 
make a medicine. Applied to medicinal agents 
used in the treatment of disease, or more gener¬ 
ally the crude substances which, after they have 
undergone preparation, are usually called medi¬ 
cines. To be drugged is more particularly ap¬ 
plied to those suffering from a narcotic medicine, 
which produces stupor, and sometimes death. 

Drug'get. [Fr.] A coarse cloth dyed of one 
color, made of wool, to protect carpets. 

Drum. [O.E.] A large tube with tight skins over 
the ends, beaten to accompany music—a kettle¬ 
drum has a metallic hemisphere, and a single 
piece of skin to be beaten ; the tympanum or 
stretched membrane in the inside of the ear ; 
a broad wheel on a revolving shaft, round which 
a belt is put to drive another wheel. 

Drying Machines. Machines for the rapid dry¬ 
ing of fabrics or other materials by centrifugal 
force. They revolve so rapidly that the water is 
thrown off from the enclosed substance. The 
centrifugal process is also used as the final stage 
in sugar production, the sugar being placed in a 
perforated cage, and the machine whirled round 
at a speed of 1,000 rotations a minute. This 
throws off the molasses, and leaves the sugar 
crystals nearly white. In paper-making machines 
are fans which drive heated air against the inner 
surface of the paper, rapidly drying it. 

Duck. [O.E.] A well-known swimming-bird, 
whose boat-shaped body and long neck and web¬ 
bed feet adapt it to live in the water. Its body 
is covered with a thick and close plumage ; its 
coat of down is very thick ; and it has a large 
supply of oil in an oil-gland which keeps its 
feathers from getting wet. Its flat bill is sup¬ 
plied with rough plates around the edge, which 
form a good strainer, and so it can pick its food 
from the mud and water it takes into its mouth. 
Ducks are kept on farms for the sake of their 
eggs and their flesh. The feathers are also of 
use for bedding, those of the eider duck ( q . v.) 
being especially soft and fine. River ducks in¬ 
clude the common domestic duck, the wood- 
duck, the mandarin or Chinese duck, and the 


Ea'gle. [Fr., from E. aqnila .] A large vertebrate 
bird of prey of the Falcon family, with a short, 
sharp, hooked beak ; short, strong feet; very 
strong, sharp, hooked claws {q-V-) and a long 
tail. It has keen vision, is solitary in its habits, 
and builds its nest usually on the top of a lofty 
tree in a swamp, or on some rocky peak, of large 
sticks and branches heaped together. It uses the 
same nest year after year. It feeds on birds, 
squirrels, hares and rabbits, and lambs from the 
flock, seizing its prey, not with the beak, but 
with the talons (q.v.), sometimes driving its 
breast bone straight against what it wishes to kill. 
The most noted species are the golden eagle, the 
imperial eagle, the American white or bald eagle, 
and the European sea-eagle. The golden eagle 
is a fine large bird. Its nest is roughly made up, 


Muscovy duck, originally of South America. 
The steamer duck of South America cannot fly, 
but swims swiftly. 

Dye / ing. [AS.] A process consisting in fixing 
the color in cloth and other materials by immers¬ 
ing them in a prepared bath containing coloring 
substances. Dyes are obtained from animals, 
vegetables, and minerals, the different tints 
being secured by combining the requisite num¬ 
ber of simple coloring substances with one 
another. In order to render the colors perma¬ 
nent, mordants are used. These consist chiefly 
of the salts of iron, alumina, and tin. With ani¬ 
line and some otherdyes no mordant is required. 
Indigo is the chief of blue dye-stuffs ; quercitron 
and fustic dye yellow; and madder, log-wood, 
cochineal, and aniline dyes are the most com¬ 
mon red dyes. 

Dynamite [Gk. dynamis ], or Giant Powder. 

The general name for various explosives, pre¬ 
pared by mixing nitro-glycerine with some 
absorbing substance which prevents leakage. 
The materials used for this purpose are sawdust, 
silicious marl, rotten-stone, tripoli, the meal of 
Indian corn, sponge plaster, and an infusorial 
earth known as “ keiselguhr.” Its explosive 
powers are very great, while it is far safer to 
handle than nitro-glycerine. It was discovered 
in 1867 by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist. 

Dynamo. [Gk.] A machine used for generating 
a current of electricity by the rotation of coils of 
wire with iron cores between the poles of a pow¬ 
erful electro-magnet. When any conductor of 
electricity is moved about in the space surround¬ 
ing the poles of a magnet so as to cut the lines 
of force at right angles, currents of electricity 
are produced in the conductor. In magneto¬ 
electric machines permanent magnets are used; 
but when an electro-magnet is substituted for the 
permanent magnet, the machines are termed 
“dynamos,” or dynamo-electric machines. Dy¬ 
namos are used for electric lighting; also 10 
operate electric motors on cars and in factories 
to drive machinery—the motor being simply a 
reversed dynamo. 


and often measures five feet square. The young 
eagles never number more than four, and are 
hatched in thirty days. This bird, on perceiving 
its game, circles in the air, and then slowly de¬ 
scends in decreasing circles till the prey is caught. 
The bald or white eagle is about the size of a 
small hen turkey. Its head is not really bald, 
but covered with thick, white feathers, which 
give it this appearance. Its feathers are of a 
brownish-black color. It loves fish, but does 
not catch them itself. Instead, it watches the 
fish-hawk or osprey at its work, and when it 
sees that the hawk has caught a fish, it swoops 
downward and forces it to yield its prey. 

The eagle was the emblem of ancient Rome, 
and is now the emblem of the Austrian and Rus¬ 
sian empires, and of the United States. The 

627 





5 2 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Austrian and Russian eagles are made with two 
heads, in imitation of the double-headed eagle 
first used by Constantine the Great, one of the 
heads of which meant the Western Empire, and 
the other the Eastern Empire. 

Eagle, a gold coin of the United States, whose 
value is ten dollars. It was first coined in 1795. 
The half eagle was first made in the same year, 
the quarter eagle in 1796, and the double eagle 
in 1849. These coins are not pure gold. The eagle 
was named from the emblem of the United States. 

Ear. [AS.] The mechanism through which 
sound reaches the brain. In man and the higher 
vertebrates the ear is divided into three parts— 

the outer open¬ 
ing, or meatus ; 
the middle ear, 
o r tympanum 
or drum ; the 
inner car, or 
labyrinth. The 
membranous 
labyrinth con¬ 
sists of a num¬ 
ber of sacs and 
tubes contain¬ 
ing a lymph 
fluid, which fills a cavity known as the bony 
labyrinth. The sound collected by the outer 
ear sets the tympanic membrane vibrating; 
the bones in the middle ear convey these vibra¬ 
tions to the inner ear, where the fibres of the 
auditory nerve receive them and send them to the 
brain. A passage called the eustachian tube 
opens from the inner cavity into the throat. 
When through cold the throat is swollen, the 
mouth of this tube may close and deafness ensue. 
The ears of animals of prey bend forward to 
collect the sounds in the direction of the pursuit. 
The ears of animals of flight, as hares and deer, 
turn backward to catch the sounds that may 
warn them of approaching danger. 

Earth. [AS.] One of the planets of the solar 
system, coming next to Mercury and Venus in 
the order of distance from the sun. The princi¬ 
pal motions of the earth are (1) its daily revolu¬ 
tion 011 its axis; (2) its yearly revolution in its 
orbit round the sun. It was long believed that 
the earth stood still and the sun, planets, and 
stars revolved around it, but astronomers have 
proved that the earth moves round the sun, 
completing one revolution in about 365 days 6 
hours. The orbit is an ellipse, with the sun in 
one focus, so that the earth is not at the same 
distance from the sun at all periods of the year ; 
the mean distance is about 92,800,000miles. The 
motion of the earth in its orbit explains the 
apparent motion of the sun in the heavens 
during the course of the year. Many general 
considerations suggest to us the globular form of 
the earth. When a ship is sailing away from 
the laud, the hull will be seen to disappear while 
the masts are still visible, and by degrees the 
masts also sink below the horizon. If the sea 
were fiat, the body of the vessel would be visible 
as long as the masts. Mariners also have sailed 

628 



round the earth, always steering in the same 
general direction. Measurements made at dif¬ 
ferent parts of the earth’s surface show that the 
length of a degree increases towards the poles, 
and that consequently the earth is not a perfect 
sphere, but is flattened at the poles. Its mean 
diameter is 7,918 miles, and circumference 24,875 
miles, while it moves around the sun at a speed 
of 15 miles per second. The mass of the earth is 
rather more than five times as great as that of a 
globe of water of the same size would be. It 
has been found that the temperature increases 
about i° F. for every 64 feet of descent. If the 
temperature were to increase at this rate inwards, 
then at no great depth the heat would be suffi¬ 
cient to melt the ordinary materials of the crust 
known to us. Hot springs and volcanoes show 
that the interior of the earth is much warmer 
than the exterior. It is therefore supposed that, 
though the materials in the interior are at an 
exceedingly high temperature, yet owing to the 
great pressure under which they exist they are 
most probably in the solid state. 

Earth'quake. A movement or shaking of some 
part of the surface of the earth, resulting from 
a shock inflicted on a solid portion of the earth 
at some point below the surface. Earthquakes 
occur with most frequency in volcanic regions. 
A few of the more remarkable earthquakes of 
modern times were those of Uisbon in 1755, 
Lima in 1746, Peru and Ecuador in 1868, and the 
Riviera in 1887. 

Hb'ony. [Fr., from Heb.] A kind of wood, 
usually black, hard, and heavy, which can take 
on a fine polish. The finest is the heart wood of 
a tree found in Mauritius. Other trees in Ceylon 
and the East Indies also yield ebony. A legu¬ 
minous tree in the West Indies yields green 
ebony. It is used for ornamental cabinet work, 
mosaic, flutes, knife handles, pianoforte keys, 
etc. Most of the furniture called ebony is made 
of cherry-wood dyed black. 

Eccentric. [Fr., from Gk.] A wheel or revolv¬ 
ing disk, whose axis of motion is not in its 
centre. By its use circular motion can be con¬ 
verted into intermittent motion. Eccentrics are 
used to work the valve-gear of steam engines 
and for many other purposes. 

Ech / o. [Gk.] A sound reflected back to the ear. 
It is caused by the sending back from a reflect¬ 
ing surface of 
the undula¬ 
tions which 
produce the 
sound. The 
most remark¬ 
able echoes 
are one at 
Lurlei on the 
Rhine ; those at the Whispering Galleries at St. 
Paul’s, London, the Observatory, Paris, and the 
Capitol, Washington, and those on some of the 
lochs in Scotland. (See Focus.) 

Eclipses. [Gk. ekleipsis , a failing.] When a 
body which does not allow light to pass through 
it (an opaque body) is exposed to the light of 



ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


53 


tlie sun or of any other luminous body it casts a 
shadow behind. An eclipse of the moon is caused 
by the moon entering the shadow of the earth ; 
which can only happen at the time of full moon, 
when the earth lies directly between the sun and 
moon. An eclipse of the sun takes place when 
the moon, coming between the earth and the 
sun, intercepts the sun’s light. This can only 
happen at the time of new moon, when the 
moon comes directly between the sun and the 
earth. Usually the moon hides the whole disc of 
the sun, producing a total eclipse ; but occasion¬ 
ally a thin band of sunlight is visible round the 
edge of the moon, and then we have what is known 
as an annular eclipse ( annulus , a ring). This is 
because the moon is not always at the same 
distance from the earth when the eclipse happens, 
and at its greatest distance the apparent size of 
the moon is less than that of the sun. If the 
moon is a little out of the central line between 
the earth and sun a partial eclipse is produced. 

Eel. [AS.] A kind of tisli with a strong smooth 
skin, a vast quantity of small scales, and a long 
thin body. Though it has the head of a fish it 
has no gill covers, but only a small hole. Its 
dorsal and anal fins run along nearly oue-third 
of the body, but some species are nearly destitute 
of fins and have no scales. Eels mostly abound 
in waters which communicate with the sea and 
some species live only in sea-waters. The fresh¬ 
water eel can creep over the ground like snakes, 
and sometimes passes the winter in a torpid state 
in mud. It has transparent horny coverings to 
defend its eyes from mud and stones. Eels are 
the terror of most other fish, and attack their 
prey by day and by night. The murry eel 
abounds in the Mediterranean and other warm 
seas, and the Romans esteemed it a delicacy. 
Eels are caught by eel-bucks, eel-sets or nets, 
and bobs or worms and worsted. Electric eels 
are found at the mouth of the Orinoco in pools 
after a flood, where they are harpooned by the 
natives, who drive wild horses into the water to 
receive their electric shocks. These eels are 
large, yellow, and livid, and arch their bodies, 
straightening themselves with a jerk, and curv¬ 
ing back again when they produce the shock. 
The shock is severe enough to knock down men 
or auimals. The electricity is generated by 
cells in the lower part of the body, and the number 
of cells varies according to the size of the fish. 

Egg. [AS.] A roundish or oval-shaped body laid 
by birds and other animals, and from which their 
young come forth. The egg of the bird consists 
of a yolk with a germ-cell, which is surrounded 
by white albumen and enclosed in a shell. The 
germ-cell occupies little space, but it is of great 
importance, since from it the bird develops. 
Twisted cords of albumen allow the yolk to roll 
over when the egg is turned, but the germ-cell 
always keeps uppermost, and so is always 
nearest the body of the bird as she sits on her 
eggs, and thus receives the most heat. In growth 
the albumen furnishes the matter for the body of 
t he young bird, and the yolk affords its nourish¬ 
ment. The bigger the yolk the larger will be the 


young chicken. There is at the top of the egg a 
little bubble of air for the. use of the young bird, 
and fresh supplies of air pass through numerous 
small pores in the shell. The young bird, when 
sufficiently grown, chips the .shell by a little 
knob on its beak ; which disappears after it has 
come forth from the shell. An ostrich egg will 
weigh three pounds, and contain as much as one 
dozen hens’ eggs. Ostrich eggs are left in the 
sun to hatch. Alligators place theirs under a 
mass of vegetable matter heaped up on purpose 
to produce the heat necessary for hatching. Tur¬ 
tles lay from ioo to 200 egg c , and cover them 
with sand, carefully smoothing the place where 
they are left to hatch iu the heat of the sun. The 
female shark lays but two eggs, which are en¬ 
closed in leathery purse-shaped cases, with the 
four corners lengthened into tendrils, and these 
becoming entangled in sea-weed hold the egg in 
its place. The empty black cases of sharks’ eggs 
are often found on the sea-shore. The eggs of 
fishes are tiny, covered with a thin skin, and so 
transparent that the fish can be seen moving in¬ 
side for a day or two before being hatched. A 
single cod-roe will contain 9,000,000 eggs, but 
great myriads of fish are devoured when young 
by their larger neighbors. The eggs of frogs are 
scattered through a lump of thick jelly, which 
sticks to grass or twigs, and so is prevented from 
drifting away by that which affords food to the 
young animals. Many snakes lay eggs, which 
like those of the frog are stuck together by a 
thin jelly. Snails deposit tiny white eggs, which 
contain perfect little snail-shells within. The 
eggs of ants are scarcely visible. The queen ant 
lays all the eggs, which are immediately taken 
iu charge by nurses that lick and clean them till 
little white grubs are hatched. The queen bee 
lays all the eggs of bees, sometimes 2,000 in a 
single day, and each egg is placed iu its own 
special cell—worker eggs in worker-cells, and 
drone eggs in drone cells. After a few days the 
eggs hatch white grubs, which are attended by 
nurses. Nearly all spiders enclose their eggs in a 
silken cocoon,which, in some species, the mother 
carries on her back: 2,000 young spiders have 
been found in one cocoon. The eggs of domestic 
fowls are very nutritious. 

Ei'der Duck. [Scand.] A sea-bird, which spends 
the winter on the Arctic seas, and when spring 
comes swims with its mates to the shore. The 
female makes a large, loose nest of dry grass, and 
lines it with a thick layer of down plucked from 
her own breast. The natives rob the nests of 
this down, and when it is replaced rob them a 
second time. Then the male bird strips himself 
of his down to line the nest, which is now left 
undisturbed. The female lays from six to ten 
pale-green eggs. Eider down is valuable for its 
softness and lightness, and the eggs are much 
liked as food. The eider duck does not flv well, 
but is early taught to swim and dive, the mother 
going down to the sea with a little one under 
each wing. 

Ekder. [AS.] A small tree or shrub with soft pith, 
white flowers, and black, red, or purple berries. 

629 







54 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


The berries are diaphoretic and aperient. Elder- 
flower water, made from the flowers,is a perfumed 
water used in perfumery and confectionery. 
Electricity. [Gk.] This name was originally ap¬ 
plied to certai n attractions and repulsions, but 
the subject has gradually widened so as to include 

various chemical heat- 
iug, luminous, mag¬ 
netic, and mechanical 
effects. Electricity is 
considered under the 
two heads of (i) Stat¬ 
ical or Frictional 
Electricity; and (2) 
Current or Voltaic 
Electricity. 

Statical Electricity. 
As early as 600 B.C., 
Thales and other 
Greek philosophers 
discovered that amber 
(hence the name elec¬ 
tricity, from Gk. elec¬ 
tron , amber) when 
rubbed with silk at¬ 
tracted light bodies ; 
and about 1600 A.D., 
Dr. Gilbert found that 
glass, sulphur, sealing 
wax, resin, and many 
other bodies were pos¬ 
sessed of the same 
property. When glass 
is rubbed with silk, 
the glass is said to be 
electrified positively , 
and the silk, which 
has been the rubber, 
negatively; but wax 
rubbed with silk or flannel is negatively and 
the silk positively electrified. The existence 
of two kinds of electricity is shown as follows : 
A small pith ball is hung by a silk thread from a 
glass support, forming an electric pendulum. 
When a glass rod which has been rubbed with 
silk is brought near the pith ball, the ball is at¬ 
tracted by the glass ; but as soon as it touches it, 
repulsion follows, and the two separate. If now 
a stick of sealing-wax be rubbed with silk, and 
brought up to the pith ball, the latter will be at¬ 
tracted towards the wax although it has just been 
repelled by the glass. This shows that a pith ball 
touched by electrified glass is afterwards repelled 
by the electrified glass, but attracted by electri¬ 
fied sealing-wax. This experiment shows two 
things: (i)that there are two kinds of electricity; 
(2) that two bodies charged with like electricities 
repel one another, and those charged with unlike 
electricities attract. The electricities here called 
positive and negative are also known respectively 
as vitreous and resinous. The electricity pro¬ 
duced by friction has great electro-motive force, 
and is thus capable of overcoming great resist¬ 
ance, and of producing powerful mechanical 
effects ; but it is deficient in quantity, and there¬ 
fore does not possess a large amount of energy. 

630 



Diagram Showing : A, four cells in 
series; B, four cells in parallel; 
and C, three in series with two in 
parallel. 





grove’s cell. 

Z, zinc plate in dilute sulphuric 
acid; P, platinum plate in 
strong nitric acid. 


Current Electricity . A galvanic or voltaic cell 
or battery is an arrangement in which electricity 
is yielded by chemical action. Such electricity 
is named current , because it is continuous while 
the chemical action lasts, and not intermittent, 
like the momentary discharge from a Leyden jar. 

A current may also be 
generated by heating the 
junction of two dissimilar 
metals; the electricity 
obtained in this way is 
called the thermo-electric 
current, the heat being 
transformed into electric¬ 
ity. Another method of 
obtaining a current is by 
rotating a coil of wire 
between the poles of a 
magnet or of an electro¬ 
magnet, as in the dynamo 
which yields electric light 
and power. The chief 
subjects which require to 
be considered under the 
-head of Current Electric¬ 
ity are (1) the effect of the 
current in producing 
chemical decompositions; 
(2) in producing heat and 
light, as in electric light¬ 
ing (q.v.) ; (3) the production of induced currents 
by the action of anohter current or of a magnet; 
(4) the measurement of the strength of the cur¬ 
rent, as with the galvanometer. (See Galva¬ 
nometer, Ether.) 

EIec / tric Light. Two forms of electric light are 
used—the arc and the incandescent. When a 
strong current passes between two carbon points 
which have bqen first in contact and are after¬ 
wards separated a short distance, the interval 
between them is occupied by a luminous band 
(known as the voltaic arc). This constitutes the 
arc light. Its light is very intense. The com¬ 
mon street light is equal to about 800 candle- 
power, but the powerful search light may equal 
more than 50,000,000 candles. I11 the incan¬ 
descent lamp the current is made to pass through 
a strip of carbon which has been carefully pre¬ 
pared and formed into a loop. This becomes in¬ 
tensely hot, and gives out much light. It is en¬ 
closed in a small glass globe, from "which the air 
must be removed or a vacuum formed, otherwise 
the heated carbon would unite with the oxygen 
and the air be consumed. This light is suitable 
for household use. The current is supplied by 
an electro-magnetic machine. 

Elec/ trie Tele'graph. A system of con¬ 
veying intelligence to a distance by means of sig¬ 
nals produced by aid of the electric current. The 
two stations, which may be several thousand miles 
apart, are connected by a wire along which the 
electricity flows. The electric current, produced 
by a galvanic battery, passes along the wire with 
immense velocity, and is capable of acting upon 
an electro magnet at great distances. In the 
common Morse system the sender uses a small 






























































55 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


instrument, by tapping which with his finger he 
can break off tb^ current at will. When this is 
done quickly the receiving instrument gives a 
quick sound, or makes a dot on paper. When 
slowly, there is a longer sound, or a dash on 
paper. Ihese dots and dashes are variously com¬ 
bined to represent the letters of the alphabet. 
These are now caught by the ear, paper not being 
used. Telegraph lines are usually carried through 
the air on wooden poles, galvanized iron being 
used. Telegraphs also pass under the oceans, 
their wires being surrounded by insulating ma¬ 
terial , the whole being called a cable. Telegraph¬ 
ing without wires has recently been invented. 

Elec'trc^met/allurgy. The art of depositing met¬ 
als—such as gold, silver, copper, etc.,—from 
their solutions by a slow current of electricity, 



ELECTRO PH O ROUS. 

I, Ebonite plate; B and P, upper and lower plates of brass; R, 
insulating handle for upper plate. 

obtained either from a voltaic or a magneto¬ 
electric battery. The process is mostly confined 
to electro-typing and electro-plating.— Electro- 
typing ‘is the method of securing copies of med¬ 
als, statuettes, etc. When copper, for example, 
has to be deposited upon a mould (made of plas¬ 
ter of Paris or gutta-percha), the mould is made 
a conductor by brushing it over with black-lead ; 
and, after attaching it to the negative pole of the 
battery, it is suspended in itlie solution of sul¬ 
phate of copper, the positive pole consisting of 
a plate of the same metal. By the electrolysis of 
the solution copper is deposited on the surface 
of the mould, while sulphuric acid is set free; 
and this, by dissolving a portion of the copper at 
the positive pole, keeps the solution at constant 
strength.— Electro-plating is the process of cov¬ 
ering forks, spoons, etc., made of the cheaper 
metals, with a coating of silver. The process is 
in reality electro-typing in silver instead of cop¬ 
per. The solution of silver (called the bath) con¬ 
sists of two parts of cyanide of silver, io of cyan¬ 
ide of potasssium, and 250 of water. By the 
electrolysis of this solution silver is deposited 
on the object which is placed in it. 


Electroph'orous. An apparatus for generating 
frictional or statical electricity. By striking or 
rubbing the ebonite with dry flannel and then 
placing thereupon the upper plate of metal and 
touching the upper and lower metal disks simul¬ 
taneously, upon removing upper disk a discharge 
of electricity will be then felt upon touching the 
upper disk. 

Electrometer . An instrument for measuring the 
^ foree or power of an electric current. 
Electroscope. An instrument for measuring or 

detecting pres¬ 
sure of electric 
current. By rub¬ 
bing a glass rod 
with a piece of 
silk and touch¬ 
ing the knob W , 
the strips of 
gold leaf will 
part indicating 
pressure of elec¬ 
tricity. 

EFeme nts. 
[B.] Substan¬ 
ces which can¬ 
not be decom¬ 
posed by chem¬ 
ical action, and 
which seem to 
be unit forms 
of matter, as dis¬ 
tinguished from 
compound s. 
They are rough¬ 
ly divided into 
two great classes 

GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE. -the metals, 

G G, Glass shade ; L, gold leaves supported and the tl O U- 
by wirew; gg, glass supports for w : v, 1nP fo1c nr 
vessel containing sulphuric acid ; p, small * ‘ 

plug to be pressed down when instrument loids. The num- 
is not in use. ber of elements 

now known isabout 75, but some of these may not 
besimple bodies, but com pounds of simpler bodies. 
EEephant. [Heb. aleph,. an ox.] The largest 
and most powerful of four-footed animals. 
It is clumsy and thick-skinned, but has a lithe 
and agile trunk. Some elephants have been 
found 12 feet high and over five tons in weight. 
They can carry great burdens at a rate of two or 
three miles an hour. Their legs are massive, 
but they can kneel and rise easily, and can use 
their fore feet as hands in holding down branches 
while the leaves are being stripped off by their 
trunks. The feet of the elephant are divided 
into toes, though externally gathered into a 
round cushion mass, protected by flattish nails. 
Compared with its body, its head is small, and the 
skull contains many hollow spaces, which lessen 
its weight. It has pendulous ears, gigantic tusks 
in the male, and a trunk which can reach 8 or 10 
feet. The tusks, which are the incisor teeth of 
the upper jaw, are weapons of defence or forks 
to dig up roots. The eye is small but brilliant, 
and its inability to look backward or upward is 
made up for by great acuteness of hearing. The 

681 


















































56 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


trunk, which is the nose lengthened out, is of a 
tapering form, and is composed of thousands of 
minute muscles, which give it great power in 
feeling and grasping, or in pumping up or eject¬ 
ing water. The trunk conveys the food to the 
mouth or draws up water which is thrown over 
the back. The elephant is herbivorous, and feeds 
on grass, young shoots, and roots ; it is found in 
Central and Southern Africa, and in India. Ele¬ 
phants arc captured by enclosing them in palisades 



of timber. They are intelligent and sagacious, 
and can be trained to do many kinds of work 
and many feats. The African elephant has great 
flapping ears, and is more fierce than that of 
Asia. Its tusks yield fine ivory, which is very 
valuable. The Asiatic elephant is smaller than 
the African. The tamed elephants in menageries 
are of the Asiatic kind. 

EEevator. [L,.] A machine for raising grain, 
etc., to a higher floor—usually an endless chain 
with a series of scoops or buckets ; also, a cage 
or platform or hoist for hoisting persons or goods. 
The passenger elevator is largely employed in 
the lofty buildings of recent times. By its aid 
buildings many stories high are easily used. It 
is called a lift in England. 

Elk. [Scand.] A large species of deer. The 
European elk has long, fiat horns, and is closely 
allied to the moose. The American elk is known 
as the wapiti, and is of large size, being about as 
large as the horse. Its horns are the finest of all 
deer horns, being 5 or 6 feet long, and having 
many branches. 

Ellipse 7 . [Gk.] A curve of such form that every 
point on it has the sum of its distances from two 
fixed points alw T ays the same. The two points 
are called the foci. The orbits of the planets are 
ellipses, with the sun in one focus. 

Elm. [AS.] A large and graceful forest tree with 
thick foliage of dark-green leaves. It has smooth 
bark on the branches, but a rugged trunk. Its 
flowers are dark red, and bear an oval green pod 
with one seed. This tree is often planted in rows 
in parks, and is very common in England. Its 
wood is hard and tough, and used for water- 
632 


wheels, building, shipbuilding, carving, etc. Its 
bark is used in tanning, dyeing, and sugar¬ 
refining. The American elm is called white elm; 
a red elm, called slippery elm, has a succulent 
inner bark, whose jelley-like juice is used in 
medicine. 

EmbryoEogy. The science of the development of 
the animal body from the germ to the mature 
state. It has been discovered that man, in tLe 

embryo-growth, assumescon- 
/ \ ditions like those of some of 

/ \ the lower animals. Thus at 

i \ one stage there appear gill 

/ V slits like those of the fish. 



CONE CUT TO SHOW THE ELLIPSE. 


Em 7 erald. [Fr., from Gk.] A variety of the mineral 
beryl, of a beautiful green color; when trans¬ 
parent it is much prized as a gem. The finest 
stones come from Colombia, in South America, 
and fine ones are found in Peru. Inferior emer¬ 
alds come from Bavaria, India, and Mt. Zalvra, 
in Upper Egypt. Large crystals of emerald occur 
in North Carolina and Siberia. 

ErrEery. [Gk. smart , to rub.] A variety of corun¬ 
dum, occurring in grains or powder, and very 
hard. It is glued on cloth, paper, or the rim of 
a wheel, and used for grinding and polishing 
hard substances. It is found in the island of 
Naxos, in the Grecian Archipelago, and other 
places. 

E 7 mu or E 7 meu. [Port.] An Australian bird re¬ 
lated to the cassowary and ostrich, and, next to 
the ostrich, the largest of birds. It cannot fly, 
but runs swiftly. The emu kicks backward or 
sideways, while the ostrich kicks forward. Emu 
feathers are scarcely distinguishable from ordi¬ 
nary hair. The male bird hatches and broods the 
young. In its wild state it feeds on parrots or 
other birds ; but it is often made a household pet, 
though mischievous and cunning. It is the only 
running bird that wanders in pairs. Its eggs are 
of a beautiful dark-green color. 

EnairEel. [Fr., from Ital.] I11 pottery, a substance 
of a vitreous nature applied as a coating to the 
surface of pottery or porcelain. It is a fusible 
kind of glass, and is either transparent or opaque, 
and when transparent it forms a glaze. A11 
enamel of a similar kind is used as a lining for 
the inside of iron vessels used in cooking. I11 
the fine arts it is a substance applied as a coating 
for decorative purposes on the surface of porce¬ 
lain or metal .—Enamel work. In this kind of 
work the chief decorative quality lies in the 
manner of its execution. There are distinct 
classes of it, as Cloisonnee , Champleve, translu¬ 
cent , and surface enamel. 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


57 


LrTdogen. [Ok.] A plant that grows by adding 
new wood to the interior of the stem, as a palm, 

rush,o r orchid. Op¬ 
posed to e x o g e u 
{q-v.). The leaves 
have usually parallel 
veins, and their 
flowers are in three 
or multiples of three 
parts. Endogens 
have no bark, be¬ 
cause, the flow of sap 
being internal, bark 
is not required to 

defend the sap, as in exogens. The Endogens 

include palms, lilies, orchids, etc. 

EiEgine. [Fr., from R. ingenium.'] A machine fit¬ 
ted to do work or set machinery in motion. There 
are various kinds—steam-engine, air-engine, fire- 
engine, pumping engine, and donkey-engine. 
Military engineering includes the designing and 
building of fortifications ; civil engineering in¬ 
cludes the building of railways, canals, water¬ 
works, bridges, lighthouses, docks, and tunnels ; 
mining engineering has regard to the sinking and 
working of mines; electrical engineering includes 
all kinds of electrical work. 

ErEsigns. [L,. insignisi] The flags of a regi¬ 
ment, usually two, and referred to as colors. In 
America they are carried by color-sergeants. 
The rank of ensign, formerly used in the British 
army, was abolished in 1871. 

Epaulet. [Fr., from L,. spatula.~\ A mark of an 
officer, naval or military, worn on the shoulder, 
formerly used. 

Ep / som Salts. The ordinary name for sulphate 
of magnesium ; so called because it occurs in a 
spring at Epsom in Surrey, from the water of 
which it was originally prepared. It is now man¬ 
ufactured from mountain limestone, the lime 
being separated by sulphuric acid. It is found 
native in America, and may be also prepared 
from sea-brine. It is used in medicine as a pur¬ 
gative. It has a bitter, saline, disagreeable taste, 
which may be somewhat relieved by adding a 
little lemon syrup. 

Er'mine. [Fr.] An animal like a weasel, having 
a thick, valuable fur, worn by judges and royalty 
as emblem of authority. In summer it is brown, 
but in winter it is white. The tail is always 
black ; and these tails are arranged at intervals 
through the fur when worn in state robes. It is 
named from Armenia, where it was first found ; 
but now it is found in the north of Asia, Europe, 
and America. 

Escapement. [Fr.] The means in a clock or 
watch by which the force of the weights or 
spring is checked and regulated by the motion of 
the pendulum, or balance acting on a wheel with 
sharp teeth. They are known as the verge or 
upright, the anchor-shaped, the cylinder, the 
duplex, and the lever. 

Essence. [R. essentia , being.] The volatile mat¬ 
ter forming a perfume. Essential oils, extracted 
from various plants, fruits, and flowers are used 
in essences and perfumery. 


EtclEing. [Du.] A picture made from an etched 
plate, chiefly copper. In etching, the plate is 
covered or dabbed with a varnish, and is scored 
or scratched with a needle, so as to form the 
drawing ; it is then covered with nitric acid and 
water, which bites the metal in the lines laid 
bare. 

E'ther. [Gk. upper air.] A medium of extreme 
tenuity, which is assumed to pervade all space, 
and the interstices between the molecules of all 
bodies, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous. It is the 
medium by means of which light, heat, electri¬ 
city, and magnetism are transmitted, it being 
claimed that diffused matter cannot convey these 
forces, and that a very rare substance, differing 
in character, is needed. Sulphuric ether is ob¬ 
tained by distilling strong alcohol and sulphuric 
acid, and is an exceedingly volatile and inflam- 
able body, dissolving fats, resins, and oils, and 
useful in removing grease stains. It is also used 
as an anaesthetic. 

Eucalyptus. [Gk.] An Australian evergreen 
tree like the myrtle, which grows to a great 
height, and yields resins, oils, tars, and tannin. 
The leaves are rigid, with one edge turned to the 
zenith. They are called gum-trees. The timber 
is valuable. The Tasmanian cider-tree is a eu¬ 
calyptus, and yields a cider like sap in spring. A 
eucalyptus tree in Cape Otway Range, Australia, 
is 415 feet high. These trees have been widely 
transplanted and are thought to be of value in 
malarious districts, as in the Roman Campagna. 

Ex / ogen. [Gk.] A plant that grows by adding 

its new wood round 
the outside of the 
stem, under the bark, 
as is done by most 
'forest trees of the 
temperate zones. The 
leaves are usually net- 
ted-veined, and the 
number of cotyledons 
is two, or very rarely 
several in a whorl. 
Exogens and endogens are the principal classes 
of the vegetable ( q.v .) kingdom. 

Eye. [AS.] The human eye is a nearly spherical 
ball, which in an adult is about nine-tenths of an 
inch in diameter. The external coating, known 
in common language as the white of the eye, is a 
tough, horny membrane, having about four-fifths 
of its circumference opaque, and named the scle¬ 
rotica. The front portion of this coating, called 
the cornea , is transparent and more curved than 
the sclerotica. Behind the cornea is a flat circu¬ 
lar membrane called the iris. It is colored, and 
at its centre there is a circular opening called the 
pupil , which is capable of becoming contracted 
or enlarged on exposure to light or darkness. 
1 he color of the iris gives the characteristic 
color to each person’s eyes. Behind the pupil is 
the crystalline lens. The cavity between the 
cornea and the crystalline lens is called the ante¬ 
rior chamber , and contains the aqueous humor. 
The cavity behind the crystalline lens, called the 
posterior chamber , contains the vitreous humor. 

6 33 





































58 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


The sclerotica is lined by a dark-colored mem¬ 
brane called the choroid coat , saturated with a 
black mucus. The choroid is lined with a mem¬ 
brane called the retina , which is traversed by a 
system of nerve filaments coming from the optic 
nerve. Tight falling on the retina produces the 
sensation of vision, and this is 
the only part of the eye which 
possesses this property. When 
the rays of light from an object 
enter the eye, they undergo 
refraction at the cornea and the crystalline 
lens, and come to a focus on the retina ; if the 
image formed on the retina is distinct, the 
object is seen clearly. The eye can accommo¬ 


date itself so as to be able to see objects at differ¬ 
ent distances ; this is supposed to be brought 
about by a change in the focal length of the crys¬ 
talline lens. The prawn has a pair of gleaming 
eyes standing out upon short stalks, which are 
composed of a number of six-sided facets in the 
shape of a hemisphere, by which the prawn keeps 
a sharp look-out. The snail also has eyes set on 
long stalks. Bees, butterflies, beetles, ants, flies, 
house-crickets, and other insects, have compound 
eyes. The eye of the grasshopper often consists 
of 12,000 lenses, with a glass-like cone and thread¬ 
like rods forming the image. Many of the mol¬ 
luscs and other low forms of life have eyes. 



F 


FakirT A member of an order of penitents or 
mendicants of Oriental lands, particularly India. 
Some of them live in communities, others wan¬ 
der about, making unpleasant displays of self- 
torture and mortification and of filthy habits. 
The term has recently been applied to itinerant 
street salesmen. 

Fair'y. A fay; an imaginary being of tiny human 
form, supposed to dance in meadows, steal in¬ 
fants, and play a variety of pranks. They are 
regarded as sometimes benevolent, sometimes 
malicious, and to concern themselves greatly 
with human affairs. The popular belief in fairies 
has largely died out, but has left a literature of 
ceaseless charm to the young and imaginative. 

Fahrenheit. A method of marking thermome¬ 
ters {g.v.) so called from the inventor, G. D. 
Fahrenheit. Its freezing-point is 32 0 , and boil¬ 
ing-point 212 0 . This thermometer is in common 
use in England and in the United States. 

Faith=Cure. A system in which it is claimed that 
the sick can be cured without medicine, needing 
only faith in certain persons or objects to produce 
this effect. Christian Science and some other 
systems seem based on a similar principle. 

FaFcon. [T- falx , a reaping-hook.] A oird of 
prey with claws like a hook. This bird used 
to be trained to catch other birds for hunters. 
Eagles, buzzards, and hawks, and most birds of 
prey, belong to the class of Falcons. All have 
the same tearing beak—a tootli-like lobe on the 
upper mandible—and all the same hooked claws. 
They lay from two to four eggs in the year. The 
peregrine falcon or hawking falcon is a trim, 
brave bird. Hawking with the falcon is still 
practiced in Persia and India. The gyrfalcon is 
an Arctic bird. 

Falling Stars. The flashing meteors which dart 
across the sky at night and quickly disappear. 
At certain periods of the year they are seen in 
large numbers, and yield the impression of stars 
falling from their place in the heavens. 

FaFIow Deer. [AS.] A deer of a fallow or pale 
yellowish-brown color, smaller than the red deer. 
In summer both sexes are spotted with white. 
It is a native of Persia, but is now domesticated 
in Europe. 

634 


Fan. [AS., from T.] An instrument for blowing 
away chaff, or for moving the air to cause cool¬ 
ness, or to blow a fire. Tadies’ French fans are 
made of ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, 
bone, gauze, or feathers. Cheap fans from India 
and China are palm leaves or split bamboo. 
Targe machine fans, moved by steam power, are 
used for many purposes, and electric fans to cool 
large rooms in summer. 

FarFna. \f. farina, meal.] Ground corn or fine 
meal made from cereal grains or from the starch 
extracted from vegetables, and used in cookery. 
—Farinaceous food, food consisting of meal or 
flour. 

Fat. [AS.] The soft, oily part of an animal’s 
body. Carbonaceous foods act both to yield 
animal heat and to form fat, which is of use to 
the animal in protecting it from the cold and 
forming a store of food. Some fats are solid at 
ordinary temperatures. These include beef suet 
from the ox, mutton suet from' the sheep, lard 
from the pig, butter from milk, dripping (melted 
fat from meat). They become liquid when 
heated, and are chiefly composed of stearin. 
Tiquid fats are commonly called oils, and include 
olive oil,cod-liver oil,etc. Oils ( q.v .) arecomposed 
of olein, and contain less hydrogen than solid 
fats. Fat is lighter than water, and is insoluble 
in water. Benzole or benzene will dissolve fat, 
and is much used to remove grease spots from 
clothing. 

Fea / ther. [AS.] A stalk of horn, hollow at the 
lower end or quill and filled with pith, and 
fringed at the other end, forming part of a bird’s 
wing or the covering of its body. Birds are the 
only animals that are clothed with feathers, and 
much of their beauty is due to the colors and 
markings of the feathers. Feathers grow from 
little sacs in the skin, and are horny and of much 
the same substance as the scales of reptiles. Soft 
downy feathers, which overlap one another, form 
the warm covering of the body. The large quill 
feathers of the tail and wings are useful for flying. 
On each side of the quill are barbs, \yhich, 
cleaving closely to their neighbors by hooks or 
barbules, make up the web or vane. Tower barbs 
of a feather and downy feathers have no hooks 


$ 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


on them. The tail feathers of the ostrich and 
other such birds also have no hooks. Birds 
always preen or trim their feathers with oil 
taken from an oil-gland at the end of the tail. 
This oil is most abundant in water-birds, and 
makes their feathers waterproof. Partridges and 



FEATHERS. 

a, d shaft ; b, aftershaft ; c, barbs or web. 

scratching birds have dingy feathers like the 
ground on which they live; pheasants and 
brilliantly-colored birds blend with the bright 
flowers and pretty fruits upon which they feed. 
The feathers of various birds form an important 
article of commerce. Feathers are useful as 
articles of trimming and ornament, and for the 
stuffing of beds and pillows. The quills of 
feathers were formerly made into pens, but the 
extensive manufacture of steel pens has supplied 
their place. P'eatliers for ornament are obtained 
from the ostrich, marabout, peacock, pheasant, 
bird of paradise, heron, osprey, and other birds. 

Felt. [O.E] Cloth made of the shortest fibres of 
wool, or of wool and fur of hares and rabbits, not 
woven but mixed with thin glue, and rolled or 
pressed together. After being switched up into 
fluff by bowing , it is carded and twisted into a 
soft, loose cloth, which is wound on a roller and 
carried to a felting machine, and then dyed. 
Fine felt is used for hats and coarser felt for 
table cloths, carpets, roofing, lining buildings to 
prevent dampness, and many other purposes. 

Fermentation. [E. fermentation A change 
which many organic liquids are capable of un¬ 
dergoing in the presence of certain substances 
termed ferments. The decompositions which 
take place are different from ordinary chemical 
actions, and the resulting products vary with the 1 


nature of the fermented body and with the kind 
of ferment used. There are two distinct kinds of 
ferments—(i) organized , and (2) non-organized , 
or soluble ferments. The former consist of 
minute vegetable organisms. One is yeast, which 
gives rise to the alcoholic fermentation, produc¬ 
ing chiefly alcohol and carbonic acid ; another, 
called bacterium lactis—a rod-like form—is the 
cause of the fermentation in milk, or lactic fer¬ 
mentation, the chief product of which is lactic 
acid ; a third produces acetous fermentation, giv- 
^ ing rise to acetic acid, and there are many others. 

Fern. [AS.] An order of plants belonging to the 
class of acrogens. They are usually found in 
moist soil, sometimes they grow as parasites on 
trees, and in the tropics reach so large a size as to 
be called tree ferns. The brake or bracken, poly¬ 
pody, asplenium, maidenhair, are all well-known 
ferns. They bear clustered cells filled with spores, 
which germinate and form minute growths, on 
which are borne the true organs of reproduction. 
These spores are generally produced in rows on 
the back of the leaves, or fronds , as they are usu¬ 
ally called ; or sometimes on a central branch or 
spike. There are more than two thousand kinds 
of ferns in the world. 

Fer / ret. [Fr] An animal of the weasel kind, 
about 14 inches long, used for hunting rats and 
rabbits out of their holes. It is like the weasel 
in form, has red eyes, and its fur is of a light 
brown, pale yellow, or white color. When used 
for rabbit-hunting its muzzle or jaws are tied 
together ; and as it cannot bite the rabbits, they 
are driven to the entrance of their burrows, where 
they are netted or shot. The ferret in winter 
must be protected from the cold. It is a native 
of Africa, but has been domesticated in Europe. 

Fe / ver. [Fr.] A11 illness causing great heat in 

the body and quick action of the heart. Remit¬ 
tent fevers subside at intervals; intermittent 
fevers entirely cease at intervals ; continued 
fevers neither abate nor intermit. 

FFbre. [Fr., from E. fibra, a thread.] The thread¬ 
like parts in the flesh of animals; also those in 
the stalks of such plants as hemp, flax, agave, 
jute, cotton, etc., from which thread, string, rope, 
and paper are made ; also the hairs and wool of 
animals, the thread of the silkworm, and other 
substances used in weaving, etc. 

FFbrin. A substance which separates in a solid 
state from blood after it leaves the body. It is a 
white, stringy snbstance, which may be readily 
obtained by stirring newly-shed blood. It is 
tasteless, insoluble in water, but is readily digest¬ 
ible in gastric and pancreatic juice, and when 
dried forms a heavy mass resembling albumen. 

Fife. A small wind instrument used with the drum 
for military music. It is a short tube closed at 
one end, with holes in the side. It is very an¬ 
cient, having been used by the old Greeks, 

Fig. [Fr., from E .fens, a fig-tree.] A small fruit- 
tree of from 12 to 20 feet high, with large leaves. 
The fig is a native of Syria, and grows wild on the 
Mediterranean coast. It bears two crops annu¬ 
ally, and when the fruit is picked it is .spread out to 
dry. Fig-cake is used in the East instead of bread. 

6 35 











6 o 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


File. [AS,] A piece of steel made rough for 
smoothing wood or metal. A file differs from a 
rasp in having the furrows made by straight cuts 
of a chisel, either single or crossed, while the 



FIGS. 

rasp has coarse single teeth. There are many 
shapes—fiat, square, knife-edged, half-round, 
rat-tail or round, three-square, cross, and slitting. 

Filigree. [Span.] Fine thread-like work of ara¬ 
besque pattern, made of gold or silver wire or wire 
used in decorating gold or silver. It is made 
mostly in India, Turkey, Italy, and Malta. 

FiFter. [From root of Felt.] Any substance, as 
charcoal, sand, or felt, through which liquid 
passes, and by which it is cleared of foreign sub¬ 
stances. Filters are much used for obtaining 
pure drinking water, and are employed on a 
large scale in purifying the water-supply of cities. 

Fine Arts. The arts designed to appeal to the 
artistic taste and give pleasure to observers, as 
distinguished from the useful arts, designed to 
benefit mankind. They are usually restricted to 
the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. 

Fins. [AS., from root of L,. penna , a feather.] 
The parts of a fish by which it balances itself and 
moves forward in the water. The paired fins on 
the opposite sides of the body are the true limbs 
of the fish. Those near the gills behind the head 
are the pectoral fins, and represent the fore limbs 
of quadrupeds ; those below are the ventral fins, 
and represent the hind limbs ; those on the back 
are dorsal or first and second dorsal; those un¬ 
derneath near the tail are the anal fins, and the 
tail itself is the caudal fin. These are used as its 
means of motion and the tail also serves as a 
rudder. 

Finch. [AS ] The name of a family of song¬ 
birds, as chaffinch, goldfinch, bullfinch. Many 
of the finches are beautiful singers, and others 
are prized for their delicate flesh. They frequent 
fields, groves, hedgerows, etc., and feed chiefly 
on grain and seeds. The common sparrow, an 
European bird now abundant in the United 
States, is the true type of the Finch tribe. 

Fir. [AS.] The name of several kinds of conifer¬ 
ous trees, producing valuable timber or resin. 
Firs, such as the balsam fir, the silver fir, and 
the red fir, are large in size and elegant in shape, 
and belong to the genus Abies. The silver fir on 
the Pacific coast grows to a height of 200 feet. 

Fire=engine. A machine by means of which 
water can be thrown to a great height for the 
purpose of extinguishing fires. The principle of 

636 


its action is the same as that of the force-pump 
(q.v.) \ but in a force-pump the stream of w T ater 
is intermittent, flowing only at each descent of 
the piston. This is obviated in the fire-engine 
by employing a strong air-vessel, into which the 
water is forced, the compressed air reacting on 
the water so as to keep up a steady flow. In the 
force-pump there is only one cylinder, but in the 
fire-engine there are two, in which the pistons 
are worked simultaneously, one ascending while 
the other descends. Fire-engines were formerly 
worked by hand, but now steam fire-engines are 
widely employed. 

Fire / fly. A small insect which gives out a bright 
light in the dark. All glowworms are called fire¬ 
flies or firebeetles, but the American firefly, 
which generally sparkles in humid districts, is 
called Photinus, and both sexes are winged. 

Fire 7 works. Preparations of gunpowder, sulphur, 
metallic filings, and salts, to be set on fire. The 
most common form of firework is a pasteboard 
tube filled with these explosive materials. A num¬ 
ber of these tubes are often arranged so as to make, 
when kindled, a great variety of figures in fire 
variously colored. Stars are made of nitrate of 
strontia and gunpowder. Rockets are used in 
war and as ship signals, as well as in pyrotechnic 
displays. The life-saving rocket consists of a 
drawn steel tube with a composition that expels 
the gases with a pressure of 60 tons to the square 
inch. It is used to carry a rope to a wrecked 
vessel near the coast. 

Fish. [AS.] A vertebrate animal covered with 
scales that lives almost entirely in water, has no 
lungs, and breathes through gills. It lays eggs, 
and, having a heart with only two chambers, its 



blood is cold or of the temperature of the air. 
All the seas and rivers abound in fish. The true 
fishes include the teleostei , or ordinary bony 
fishes; the Ganoidei , as the sturgeon; the 
Dipnoi , or air-breathing fish, of which there are 
a few species ; the Selachians , or sharks and 
skates. I ? islies are usually covered with scales 














































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


61 


(■ q-v •)» which overlap each other, and are moist¬ 
ened with a kind of slime. Many of them are of 
beautiful colors—gold, silver, and copper tints, 
and attractive shades of blue, green, red, and black. 
Fishes swim chiefly with the tail, and their fins 
(q.v.) help them to keep their upright position 
in the water. They are rich in nitrogenous 
material, chiefly albumen and fibrin. Some 
fishes—as salmon, herring, mackerel, and eels— 
also contain much oily matter, which makes 
them not so digestible as whiting, sole, etc. 
Among the fishes most useful as food for man are 
the cod, salmon, mackerel, pilchard, and herring. 

Fish =culture. A method now widely adopted of 
planting the eggs of fish and guarding the young 
against their enemies. In this way many mil¬ 
lions of young fish are raised and placed in the 
streams annually. The United States Fish Com¬ 
mission thus distributes over 250,000,000 young 
fish every year. The same principle is also ap¬ 
plied to the lobster, the oyster, and other food 
animals. 

Fish'hawk. The American fislihawk or osprey is 
found over nearly the whole country. It is a 
large bird, looking much like the eagle, some of 
them measuring over five feet across the wings. 
It lives on fish, darting into the water to seize 
them. It is often robbed by the bald eagle, which 
forces it to drop the fish and then swoops down 
and seizes it in its fall. 

Flag. [Scand. to hang loosely.] That which flies 
or flutters loosely in the wind, but more espe¬ 
cially a banner bearing a device or devices, and 
used to indicate nationality or to give informa¬ 
tion. Flag of truce is a white flag exhibited to 
an enemy to invite a conference. Yellow flag is 
the quarantine flag, and at the fore of a ship in¬ 
dicates that infectious disease is on board. 

Flame. [Fr., from L-] The illumination given 
by burning gas. Heat is produced by the chem¬ 
ical action which takes place during combustion, 
the temperature of the burning material being 
raised sufficiently high to give out light or to 
produce flame. The structure of flame can be 
most easily observed in a candle, lamp, or ordi¬ 
nary gas flame. When a gas flame is lit, it is 
seen that the part nearest to the burner is only 
feebly luminous. This consists of the gas which 
has just escaped from the pipe, and, though to 
some extent heated, has not begun to unite with 
the oxygen of the air. As the gas rises higher, it 
comes into contact with oxygen and unites with 
it. At first the hydrogen of the gas unites more 
rapidly with oxygen than the carbon, and in con¬ 
sequence a number of particles of carbon are set 
free, which, on becoming intensely heated, give 
rise to a brig'llt flame. The illuminating power 
of the flame is due to the particles of glowing 
carbon, which, as they rise higher, are consumed 
on the border of the" flame in contact with the 
atmosphere. In order to give out much light, a 
flame should contain solid matter ; but the most 
luminous flames are not necessarily the hottest. 

Flamingo. A wading-bird of several species. It 
is of a brilliant red, and has a long neck and 
legs. In feeding, the head is bent downward and 



inward so as to reverse the position of the upper 
mandible. '1 he nest is made of mud scratched up 
two or three feet high, and two eggs are hatched, 
the bird standing so as to rest on the tall nest. The 
red flamingo posts sentinels, which give warning 
of danger with trumpet notes. 

Flax. [AS.] A plant about two or three feet in 
height, with small pointed leaves and blue flow¬ 
ers. The stems are hollow, and covered with 
fibrous material. The flowers grow in clusters 
at the top of the stalks, and are succeeded by 
round seed-vessels the size of a pea. Each seed 
vessel contains ten flat seeds of a brown color. 
It thrives in a rich, moist soil. The leaves drop 
off when the plants are ripe, and the 
stems turn yellow. The stalks are 
pulled up and tied in bundles to dry. 

They are then steeped in water until 
softened, so that the fibres of the out- 




FLAX-WHEEL. 

side covering or bark can be separated. The fibre 
of flax is spun and woven by machinery into liuen, 
and then bleached by chloride of lime. Flax is 
grown in Europe and the United States, where it 
was introduced from England in 1629. Linen, 
lawn, and damask cloth are woven from flax- 
thread, and linseed oil is made from its seeds. 

Flea. [AS.] A small insect without wings that 
moves by leaping, and whose bite is troublesome 
because slightly poisonous. The human-flea is 
abundant in Europe, but rare in America, where 
the dog-flea takes its place. The dog-flea infests 
dogs and cats, and is occasionally troublesome to 
man. 

Flints. [AS., a hard stone.] Amorphous lumps of 
dark silica which occur in nodular sheets in chalk 
and other limestones. They often enclose such 
organisms as shells and sea-urchins; spicules of 
sponges abound in flint. The process by which 
flint has been formed is uncertain ; but it is sup 
posed to be due either to the abstraction of silica 
from sea-water by sponges, or to the decomposi¬ 
tion of animal remains. Flint-glass is dispersive 
of light, and consists of silicate of lead and 
potassium. It is used for table-ware, and prisms, 
and is called crystal glass. 


637 




















6 2 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Floun / der. [Du.] A flat fish found near the 
mouths of rivers. There are many different kinds 
both in Kurope and America. 

Flour. [Fr., from L,. flos, flower.] The finest 
part of meal or corn ground into fine powder. 
In milling, meal is separated into flour and bran, 
the meal being afterwards separated from the 
bran by bolting through a gauze-covered revolv¬ 
ing cylinder. There are various kinds of flour, 
some fine, others coarse, and of different grains, 
as wheat, rye, etc. 

Flower. [Fr., from L, - flos > flower.] The part of 
a plant destined to produce seed. The flower is 
easily seen in such plants as the rose and the but¬ 
tercup iu which it is large and brightly colored ; 
but grasses, too, and indeed all plants of a higher 
order have well developed flowers. In a buttercup, 
on the outside of each flower, are small greenish- 
yellow sepals , five in number, which form the 
calyx. Then come five large bright yellow petals, 
forming what is called the corolla. Inside this, 
looking like little pins with yellow heads, are the 
stamens. In the centre of the flower are some 
green bodies called carpels , which together form 
the portion of the flower called the pistil. Rvery 
part of the flower has its use. The calyx pro¬ 
tected the flower when it was a bud. The corolla 
attracts the insect to the flower. The stamens 
form pollen, which when placed on the pistil 
causes the carpels to swell and form seeds. The 
pollen is carried from the stamen of one flower 
to the pistil of another by insects. Flowers also 
contain nectar. It is the wind which carries the 
pollen of grasses and several other plants. (See 
Fruit.') 

FliFid. [Fr., from L. Jluidus, flowing ] A sub¬ 
stance; whose particles possess perfect freedom 
of motion among themselves, so that any force 
applied to it will, if not resisted, produce a 
change of shape. There are two classes of fluids 
—liquids and gases —and each class has some 
properties peculiar to itself. 

Fluo'rine. [L,.] A non-metallic element, never 
met with in nature in the uncombined state. It 
is the only element which does not combine with 
oxygen. It is most frequently found combined 
with calcium in the mineral fluor-spar. In 
minute proportions it is widely diffused in the 
waters of some springs, rivers, and the sea, and in 
the bones of animals. Combined with hydrogen 
it is used in etching glass. 

Flu'or-spar. A mineral found in veins, very often 
accompanying lead ore. It occurs both crystal¬ 
lized and massive. The crystals belong to the cubic 
system, and are either colorless, green, purple, 
or yellow. When heated it becomes phosphores¬ 
cent. It is used as a flux, and some varieties are 
employed for ornamental vessels. 

Flute, [Fr., from L, .flare, to blow.] A light wind- 
instrument played by the mouth on a lateral hole, 
and by the fingers, which stop holes along its 
length or open keys. 

Fly. [AS.] A name applied to many of the winged 
insects, bnt scientifically restricted to the sub¬ 
order Diptera , which have two wings and whose 
mouth-parts are converted into a sucker, used for 

638 


taking up fluids. The sucker acts as a lancet, by 
which the skin of animals and vegetables is 

pierced so as to reach the blood 
or sap. The flies comprise many 
thousands of species, differing 
greatly in size, the best known 
being the common house-fly. 
Flying=fish. A fish that can 
leap into the air with a spring of 
its tail, and keep itself up by 
its fins for a time as if flying. 
Its pectoral fins are developed 
fly’s foot magni- so as to act like wings. It can 
fied. fly for hundreds of yards, and 

is frequently attacked by sea-birds and dolphins - 
{q.v. ). It has a bladder that can be inflated to 
fill the whole cavity of the abdomen ; it has also 
a membrane that is inflated through the gills. 
The California flying-fish is said to fly for nearly 
a quarter of a mile, usually not rising more than 
four feet. There are several kinds, which are 
found in tropical seas. 

Fly=wheel. A contrivance for regulating the driv¬ 
ing power of a machine. In the steam-engine 
the power of the connecting rod to turn the 
crank varies with their relative position. When 
the rod is at right angles to the crank its turning 
effect is greatest, and when they are in the same 
straight line this power is nil. There is thus 
introduced a cause of unevenness in the motion 
through the whole length of the stroke. To 
obviate this difficulty the fly-zuheel is fixed on 
the axis. This is a large wheel wnthalieavy rim, 
which, when once started, requires little work to 
keep it in motion ; but, since it possesses much 
energy in consequence of its motion, it acts to 
make uniform the motion of the rod and crank. 
Fog. [Celt.] 'When the vapor in the air reaches 
the point of saturation (see Dew) it condenses, 
and assumes the form of very small drops, which 
constitute fog if they are present in the low T er 
regions of the atmosphere, and cloud if in the 
higher. Fogs are therefore of the same nature 
as clouds {q.v.). Fogs may be caused by the flow 
of a current of warm moist air over masses of 
ice, such as are sometimes encountered in the 
Atlantic, and are often seen on the Banks of 
Newfoundland. 

Fog Signals. Signals to prevent the collision of 
vessels in foggy w T eather. Many methods of 
signalling have been tried, the best being the 
whistle and the trumpet. The most powerful is 
the siren trumpet, whose sound can be heard for 
more than 20 miles. 

Folk=Iore. The study of ancient legends, rustic 
tales, superstitions, etc. This term has been 
used since 1846, and great collections of the 
beliefs, customs, and popular tales handed down 
from the far past have been made. 

Food. [AS.] All substances used for purposes of 
nutrition. The useful constituents of all foods— 
animal, vegetable, and mineral—are classified as 
(1) nitrogenous, including the animal and vege¬ 
table albuminoids and gelatin; (2)fatty, including 
animal and vegetable fats and oils; (3) carbohy¬ 
drates, including starch and the sugars ; (4) salts 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


63 


organic and inorganic ; (5) water. In addition 
to the vegetable and animal foods consumed for 
the support and growth of the body, there are 
also needed lime, iron, soda, potash, chlorides 
and phosphates, etc. Water is very necessary, 
since it forms two-thirds of the weight of the 
body. A very great variety of foods and com¬ 
binations of nutritive materials are used by man. 

Foolscap. A size of paper 16 by 13, which used 
to have as its water-mark a fool's cap and 
bells. 

Foot. [AS.] That part of the body on which ani¬ 
mals stand and walk. There 
are 26 bones in the foot and 
ankles of man. To these are 
fastened a great number of 
ligaments and muscles, by 
which their movements are 
guided and varied. The foot 
of the chimpanzee is in many 
points like that of man, but the 
toes are longer, and it is not 
adapted for easy standing or 
walking. The feet of quadru¬ 
peds differ greatly, 
five toes like 
man, some four 
or three, and in 
many cases— 
as in the oxen, 
deer, antelopes, 
camels, and 
others — there 
are only two 
toes, covered 
with h orny 
hoofs. The horse has but one toe, 
covered with a strong hoof, which is really the 
nail greatly developed. What is called the knee 

i n four-footed 
animals is usu¬ 
ally the heel, 
lifted above 
the ground. 

S o m e animals 
walk, like man, 
on the flat sole 



Some have 



CLIMBING FOOT. 





TOE WITH SPUR. 


FOOT OF SCRATCHER 

of the foot; some, like lions and 
cats, on the bent toes ; others, like 

the horse and 
ox, on the tip 
-of the toe, 
which is cov- 
ered by the 
hoof. Birds 
have usually 

four toes, three in front 
and one behind, the foot 
and toes differing as they 
are intended for perching, 
walking, wading, or swimming. 

FootbalS. A game of kicking a ball with the foot 
between goals. The ball is usually made of India- 
rubber or a bladder, and is enclosed in a leather 
cover. 


FOOT OF PARROT. 


Foot-rule. A measure of a foot, or 12 inches, in 
length. It differs in length in different coun¬ 
tries. In Britain and the United Stales it is .3048 
metre. 

Force=pump. A pump having a solid piston for 
drawing or forcing liquids like water through the 
valves. The force-pump delivers the water a 
considerable height above the pump. It is use¬ 
ful in draining cellars or low level places, and in 
fire-engines. 

Forecastle. [Pronounced by sailors foksl.~\ An 
upper deck before the foremast in a war-ship, 
which formerly had a turret near the prow or 
the front part of the ships where are the sailors’ 
berths. 

For'est. [Fr., from L. foris , out of doors.] A 
large piece of country covered with trees, or an 
unenclosed, uncultivated land on which wild 
animals are hunted. Forest-tree is a tree of the 
forest, grown for its timber, as distinguished 
from a fruit-tree. 

Forge. [Fr.] The furnace in which a smith heats 
the iron to be hammered. A portable forge 
is a light and compact blacksmith’s forge, with 
bellows, etc., that may be moved from place to 
place. In large forges steam-hammers are used, 
and the metal is moved by cranes. 

Forget / =me=not. A small plant of the genus My~ 
osotis , with blue flowers, used as asign of friend¬ 
ship and fidelity. 

For'mic Acid. [U. formica , ant.] A sharp acid 
occurring naturally in ants, nettles, etc., and 



AMERICAN MASTODON, FOSSIL. 

produced artificially in several ways. It is the 
first member of the fatty acids in the paraffin 
series, and is similar in character to acetic acid. 

Fort. [Fr., from L,. fortis, strong.] A strong¬ 
hold. Usually a small fortified place, occupied 
by troops, and surrounded with a ditch, rampart, 
and parapet, or with palisades or stockades. 

Fossilized Trees. In many localities collections 
of tree trunks converted into stone have been 
found. There are several of these in the United 
States, there being a remarkable ancient forest 
in Arizona, whose trees have been converted 
into opal or agate, with beautifully variegated 
colors. Some of them are six feet in diameter. 

639 















6 4 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


Fos'sils. [Fr., from L,. fossus, dug.] Hardened 
remains of animals or plants found in rocks 
which have been dug out of the earth. Most 
fossils belong to extinct species, but many of the 
later ones belong to species still living. The geo¬ 
logical strata comprise three main divisions :— 
the Primary, the Secondary, and the Tertiary ; 
each of these including a number of minor divi¬ 
sions. In the Primary division we find corals, 
crustaceans, molluscs, fishes, and a few reptiles, 
and also an abundant flora of herbs and trees of 
the lower orders, found in the Carboniferous 
period. The Secondary age had its herbs and 
plants, its corals, its crustaceans, its molluscs, 
and its fishes ; but the leading animals of this age 
were its huge reptiles of sea and land. It was 
peculiarly an age of egg bearing animals, winged 
and wingless. The first birds now appeared, 
with teeth in their jaws, also small marsupial 
mammals. In the Tertiary period the mammals 
were wonderfully developed in size and numbers. 
Its mammoths and its mastodons, its rhinoceri and 
hippopotami,its enormous dinotherium and colos¬ 
sal megatherium were much larger and more 
numerous than the largest of existing mammals. 
The fossil remains of one of its elephants are still 
so abundant amid the frozen wastes of Siberia, 
that what have been not inappropriately termed 
“ ivory quarries ” have been wrought amid their 
bones for more than a hundred years. The west¬ 
ern section of the United States is exceedingly 
rich in fossils of the Secondary and Tertiary 
periods, and new forms are found there annually, 
some of them of huge dimensions. 

Fowl. [AS.] A farm-yard bird used as food, as 
cock or hen, turkey or duck. Hens feed on 
grain and seeds, and also worms, flies and beetles. 
Farm-)lard cocks and hens are a mixture of 
breeds. Game fowls are smaller, and have more 
delicate legs. Dorkings were first raised at Dork¬ 
ing, England, and are large birds and good layers. 
Spanish birds are large, with glossy black 
feathers. Cochin Chinas are clumsy in shape, 
and usually reddish-brown, white, gray, or silver 
gray. Black-breasted Malays and Shanghais are 
large birds. Hamburgs or grays are silvery 
white and black speckled. Bantams are very 
small and courageous. Black and white Hou- 
dans are French fowls, and white Ueghorns are 
Italian. The points of a fowl are the neck and 
saddle hackles, the wing coverts, tail, comb, ear¬ 
lobe, wattles, breast, thighs, and legs. 

Fox. [AS.] A carnivorous wild animal belonging 
to the Dog tribe, famous for its cunning. It has 
a fine coat of reddish-brown fur, low forehead, 
ears pointed, and wide at the base, and a splen¬ 
did bushy tail of the same color, tipped, like its 
breast, with white. The fox is very mischievous, 
and usually lives in holes on the borders of a 
farm, which it visits by night. Its food is poul¬ 
try, game, rabbits, but also frogs, mice, and 
insects. It is fond of berries and fruits, grapes 
and honey. Fox-hunting is a popular sport in 
Britain, fox-hounds being kept to scent and 
chase the animal, which leaves a strong odor. 
It tries to deceive the dogs, and passes over a 
640 


marsh, or through a thicket, or jumps up a fence 
or tree, to break the scent. The skin of the fox 
is very useful ; that of the Arctic fox being much 
valued. This animal changes the color of its 
skin several times during the year, and in win¬ 
ter is white. The skin of the silver or black 
fox of North America is most valuable. The 
common foxes of Europe and America are very 
similar. Fox-brush is the tail of a fox. Fox- 
terrier is one of a peculiar breed of terriers, used 
in hunting to drive foxes from their holes. There 
are rough and smooth haired varieties. 

Fox / =glove. [AS.] A large plant with beautiful 

purple or 
white bell- 
like flowers, 
spotted i 11 - 
side. T h e 
common 
European 
plant is a 
ban dsome 
per e n nia 1 
or biennial, 
whose leaves 
are so useful 
in medicine, 
chiefly as a 
sedative i n 
heart dis¬ 
ease. 

Franc. 

[Fr.] A coin 
used in 
France 
worth a lit¬ 
tle less than 
20 cents. It 
h a s b e e n 
used as the 
unit of French coinage since 1795. It is divided 
into one hundred centimes. 

Freezing Mixture. When a substance changes 
from the solid to the liquid, or from the liquid to 
the gaseous state, heat is required to effect the 
change; and when heat is not supplied from 
without to produce the change, the body itself, 
and everything in contact with it, becomes colder. 
This is the principle of freezing mixtures. When 
ice and salt are mixed, the salt (from its tendency 
to absorb and dissolve in water) will cause the 
ice to melt. But ice in melting uses up a large 
quantity of heat, and the result is (since the heat 
has in this case been withdrawn from the sub¬ 
stances themselves) that the mixture is rendered 
very cold, and water poured into a test-tube and 
placed in it will freeze. In practice, freezing 
mixtures are used for producing artificial ice in 
moderate quantities, and in freezing creams, etc. 

Freez / ing=point. That degree of a thermometer 
at which a fluid begins to freeze. Applied to 
water, the freezing-point is 32 0 F. and zero or 
o° C. Mercury freezes at 39°F. below zero. 

Fret/work. Work adorned with figures cut out 
by a fine saw. Fillets intersecting each other at 
right angles are classic designs, and those at 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


65 


oblique angles are often based on Oriental art. 
Fret-saw or scroll-saw has a long, narrow blade. 

Fric'tion. [L-] The rubbing of one body against 
another. It may be caused by a sliding motion 
or a rolling motion. Friction clutch or coupling 
is an engaging or disengaging gear for revolv¬ 
ing shafts, pulleys, etc. ; they being so pressed 
together as to revolve in company. Friction- 
wheel transmits motion by surface friction instead 
of by teeth. 

Frieze. [Fr.] Coarse woolen cloth with a nap on 
one side, used for outer garments ; also the flat 
band between the cornice and the architrave of a 
pillar, usually covered with carving. 

Frigate. A ship of war having two gun-decks, 
and carrying from 20 to 50 guns ; classed be¬ 
tween a sloop-of war and a line-of-battle ship. 
The term frigate has nearly disappeared, being 
replaced by cruiser in naval terminology. 

Frig / ate Bird. [Fr.] A web-footed bird, called 
also man-of-war bird or frigate-pelican. Its beak 
and wings are long, and its power of flying very 
great. It feeds on fish, which it takes from gulls, 
terns, and other birds. 

Fringe. [Fr.] A border or edge of loose threads 
of wool, silk, or linen ; originally consisting of 
the ends of the warp projecting beyond the 
woven fabric, but now made separately and 1 
sewed on. 

Frog. [AS.] A small vertebrate animal, with a 
broad, squat body without a tail, that lives both 
on land and water. It has a smooth, slimy skin 
of a greenish-brown or reddish color ; it has teeth 
on the upper jaw, and by this is distinguished 
from the toad, which has no teeth. Its tongue is 
soft and fleshy, and fixed on the front of the 
mouth, but free behind, so that it can roll out and 
catch an insect. The tip of the tongue is always 
covered with a treacly, glutinous matter, to 
which any insect caught adheres. The frog 
flings its food down its throat with a very rapid 
motion. As with the rabbit, its fore limbs are 
less used than the hind limbs, and so are shorter 
and smaller. The hind legs are long, and sup¬ 
port the swimming web. It has four fingers in 
front and five toes behind. Frogs breathe slowly, 
and their blood is of a low temperature. The 
food of frogs is insects, snails, worms, and they 
swallow their food whole. Frogs cannot breathe 
in water, and so live much on land ; but water is 
needed to keep their bodies moist. They lay 
their eggs at the bottom of the water. The eggs 
are laid in a kind of jelly, which fastens them to 
a stick or plant in the water. After about a 
month the eggs hatch, when there appear 
small tadpoles, with head and tail and a pair of 
shoulders behind the mouth, and with gills for 
breathing. As they grow the gills and tails are 
lost and the frog develops. Of frogs, the tree- 
frog, the pond-frog, and the bull-frog are the 
most familiar. Frogs are found all over the 
world, and are eaten as food in many places. 

Frost. [AS.] When the temperature falls below 
32 0 F., all superficial moisture changes into ice, 
and we have frost. Frost is one of the agents 
which play an important part in moulding the 

41 


surface of the land, as it causes rocks to decay, and 
breaks up the materials of the soil. When rain falls 
it sinks into the pores of rocks, and soaks into 
the soil; and this moisture, in changing into ice, 
expands and pushes the particles of the rocks or 
of the soil more widely apart. Ten cubic feet 
of water give 11 cubic feet of ice. When a thaw 
sets in, the surface of the rock is loosened, and 
crumbles into soil, or is washed away by rivers 
to the sea, and the materials of the soil are broken 
up and rendered more fit to be made use of by 
plants. Black frost is where the cold turns vege¬ 
tation black without hoar or white-frost. 

Fruit. [Fr., from L- Jructus.\ The matured seed 
vessel and its contents. Thus the ears are the fruit 
of the corn plant, nuts are the fruit of the hazel 
tree, pods the fruit of the bean or pea, and the 



THE BANANA. 

acorn the fruit of the oak. In the apple, orange, 
etc., the seeds are imbedded in a soft, juicy, 
fleshy substance ; in dry fruits, such as nuts, the 
seed or kernel is surrounded by a hard shell; in 
drupaceous or stone fruit, as peaches, the fruits 
are stony within and fleshy without. Small 
fruits include currants, gooseberries, raspberries, 
strawberries, etc. 

FurFgus. [L.] An order of soft plants, including 
truffles, toadstools, and mushrooms. More par¬ 
ticularly the growth on an animal or plant caused 
by decay or disease, as mildew. Some kinds of 
fungi are used for food. Lichens are now believed 
to be fungi existing as partners with algae. 

Fur. [Fr.] The fine hairy covering of certain 
animals found in cold regions. In the hairy 
covering of the cat two kinds of hair grow—one 
short, soft, silky, and barbed lengthwise, which 
is the fur; and longer smooth hair, which is 
called the overhair . The best-known fur-bearing 

641 



































66 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


animals are the seal, beaver, sable, fox, mink, 
marten, otter, ermine, and musk-rat. After the 
skins have been removed from the animals, and 
before they are cleaned, they are called pelts. 
Fur forms the chief clothing of the inhabitants 
of Arctic regions, and in temperate regions is 
also used for trimmings or for outdoor garments. 
In seal-skins for ladies’ jackets the overhair is 
usually removed. The furs of the rabbit, hare, 
and beaver are used to make felt. 

Fur / nace. [Fr., from L,. fornax, oven.] A close 
fireplace for melting metals, baking bricks, etc. 
In air or wind furnaces the fire is urged by the 
natural draught; in a blast-furnace a forcible 
current of air is thrown into the fire; in a 
reverberating furnace the flame, in passing to 
the chimney, is thrown down by a low arched 
roof on the materials in the furnace. 

Furniture. [Fr.] Things supplied or needed for 
any purpose, as sails, tools, and fittings, and 
more particularly the articles needed to fit a 


Gadfly. [O.K. gad , sting.] An insect that 
deposits its young in the nostrils of sheep ; a 
species infests cattle, depositing its eggs on the 
skin and causing sores ; another kind produces 
intestinal parasites in horses. 

GaFter. [Fr.] A covering of cloth or leather for 
the ankle and the instep, or for the leg from the 
knee to the instep, fitting down on the boot or 
shoe. 

GaFaxy. The Milky Way, or zone of milky light 
which is seen in the sky on clear nights, and is 
made up of millions of stars. The term is also 
used for any assemblage of splendid things or 
persons, as a galaxy of beauty. 

Galena [L,.], or Sulphide of Lead, occurs native, 
and constitutes the chief ore from which most of 
the lead of commerce is obtained. (See Lead.) 
It possesses a bright bluish-white metallic lustre. 
It is sometimes found in Transition rocks, but 
more frequently in the Secondary rocks, 
especially in compact limestone. It occurs in 
beds and veins, and is found in almost every 
country. It is very abundant in Britain and in 
the United States. It is prepared artificially by 
adding sulphuric acid to a soluble lead salt. 

Gall. [AS.] A fluid of a greenish-yellow color, 
and very bitter, found in the gall-bladder beneath 
the liver, and consisting of bile mixed with the 
secretion of the mucous membrane of the gall¬ 
bladder. 

Gall=nuts. Nuts produced by small insects which 
puncture the bark of the Lusitanian oak in 
Southern Europe and Western Asia, and lay 
their eggs in the wxmnds. They contain much 
tannin and are used in making tannin, ink, dye, 
and in medicine. Oak-apples are formed on 
other oaks in the same way. 

Gal'lon. [Fr.] The standard unit of cubic 
measurement. The British gallon contains 
277.274 cubic inches, and a gallon of distilled 
water weighs 10 lbs. (avoir.). The gallon of the 

642 


house for being lived in. Certain articles, as 
kitchen-ranges, cupboards, shelves, and blinds 
are called fixtures. In printing, the furniture 
consists of pieces of wood or metal, lower than 
the type, placed round the pages or form to 
secure the type in its place. 

Fuse or Fusee / . [U. fusus, poured.] A tube 
filled with explosives, used for firing mines, etc. 
Fusee also means a match for lighting a pipe or 
cigar. 

Fusee 7 . [L. fusus, spindle.] The cone-like wheel 
in a watch for the chain to be rolled on, in such 
a manner that the diameter of the wheel at the 
point where the chain acts may correspond with 
the degree of tension of the mainspring. 

Fu 7 sel=oiI. [Ger.] An acid volatile oil obtained 
in the manufacture of potato brandy and whiskey. 
Its chief constituent is amyl alcohol. It has a 
powerful and suffocating odor, and is supposed 
to be a product of the fermentation of sugar. It 
is an undesirable ingredient in alcohol. 


United States is the standard Winchester wine 
gallon of 231 cubic inches. The New York State 
gallon contains 221.184 cubic inches, or 8 pounds 
of pure water. 

Galvanic Battery. [Ital., from Galvani , the 
discoverer in 1791 ] It consists of a number of 
zinc and copper plates connected together, their 
purpose being the production of a current of 
electricity. These are arranged in cells, the 
copper-plate of one being joined to the zinc- 
plate of the next, and the final copper connected 
by a wire to the zinc of the first cell. The cells 
contain a dilute acid, which acts chemically on the 
metals, and generates an electric current which 
flows around the circuit of cells and wires. The 
connecting wire may be many miles in length, as 
in a telegraph line. The zinc of the first cell is 
called the negative electrode and the copper of 
the last cell the positive electrode, the current 
being supposed to flow from positive to negative. 
There are many varieties of galvanic batteries in 
use, and other metals than copper and zinc are 
employed. Formerly all electric currents were 
produced by the battery ; now it is used only for 
weak currents, powerful currents being produced 
by the dynamo (q.v.) (See Electricity .) 

GaFvanized Iron. The name given to sheets of 
iron which have been coated with zinc. True 
galvanized iron is first coated with tin by a gal¬ 
vanic process, and afterwards with zinc" by im¬ 
mersing it in a bath of melted zinc containing 
sal ammoniac mixed with mineral matter. 

GalvanorrFeter. An instrument for measuring 
the strength of an electric current by means of 
the deflection which it produces in a magnetized 
needle. The galvanometer is constructed by 
using a coil of insulated copper wire, in the cen¬ 
tre of which is suspended the magnetized nee¬ 
dle. It is frequently named the multiplier. 

Gamboge 7 . [ Cambodia , in Asia.] A reddish- 
yellow gum used for coloring and in medicine. 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 67 


It is got from several trees in Siam, Malabar, 
and Ceylon. It is brought in masses from Cam¬ 
bodia. The best kind is of a dense, compact 
texture. The gamboge tree of Western India 
yields, in addition to gamboge, a kind of oil 
called gamboge butter. 

Game. [AS.] Sport of any kind ; animals kept 
or hunted for sport. In Europe game includes 
grouse, black game, pheasants, partridges, and 
hares, ptarmigans, quails and larger game as the 
moose and wild boar. In the United States 
game includes a great variety of animals. 
These are rarely kept in enclosures for sport, as 
in Britain, but they are protected from indiscri¬ 
minate slaughter by game laws, confining hunt¬ 
ers to fixed seasons and means of capture. 

Games. [AS., games , joy, pleasure.] A term ap¬ 
plied to certain physical exercises and mental 
recreations, distinguished as games of chance and 
games of skill. The physical games are such as 
cricket, football, billiards, golf, etc., the mental 
are card games, chess, draughts, backgammon, 
etc. 

Gan / grene. A term applied to the first stage of 
mortification of the flesh. It may result from 
severe cold, from violent inflammation, erysipe¬ 
las, and other causes, or may attack open 
wounds or ulcers. The part attacked loses 
sensibility and becomes cold and dark in color, 
while great! languor and debility supervene. It 
may come in old age from a diseased state of the 
blood-vessels and general weakness. 

GanEut. [Gk. letter gamma; and U. tit-'] The 
notes of the musical scale, arranged by Guido 
d’Arezzo in the tenth century, with ut and 
gamma at the ends. The sol-fa words were 
taken by D’ Arezzo from the first syllables of six 
lines of a hymn to St. John the Baptist: 

Ut queant laxis 
AVsonare fibris 
Mira gestorum 
Famuli tuorum 
.S<?lve polluti 
Labii reatum 
Sancte Joannes. 

GarEnet. [AS.] A web-footed sea-bird, found in 
Europe and America, and also called the solan 
goose. It is a bird of passage, and is very strong 
on the wing. The gannet follows shoals of her¬ 
ring, on which it feasts. Its skin, feathers, and 
eggs are much valued. 

Garbage. Kitchen refuse. In small towns and 
rural districts this is fed to swine, but in large 
cities it is difficult to dispose of. In Philadel¬ 
phia and some other cities it is burned in close 
furnaces. In others it is utilized in various ways. 
Thus in St. Louis the oil and grease are removed 
by the use of naphtha, and employed in soap 
making. From the remainder a good fertilizer is 
made. 

Gargoyle. [Fr.] A projecting spout for carrying 
off water, often cut grotesquely into human and 
other figures. 

Garlic. [AS.] A bulbous plant with a strong 
smell and spear-shaped leaves, used as seasoning. 
Each root is composed of several smaller bulbs, 


cloves of garlic , enclosed in a common mem¬ 
branous coat. 

Gar / net. [Fr.] The name of a mineral ispecies 
which includes numerous varieties, differing in 
composition, color, and fusibility. It is hard, 
brittle, and more or less transparent. The red 
variety is the most common, but brown, and 
sometimes green, yellow, and black sorts are 
found. The variety which includes th rt precious 
garnet consists of silicate of alumina together 
with oxide of iron. It is transparent, and of a 
deep-red color, and is much prized as a gem. 

Gar / ter. The band to prevent tne stocking from 
slipping down ; the badge of the highest order of 
knighthood in Britain, instituted by Edward III. 

Gas. [Du.J Matter is capable of existing in the 
three forms known as solid , liquid , and gaseous. 
The gaseous condition of matter is defined as 
that which is capable of unlimited expansion— 
that is to say, that a very small quantity of any 
gas, if introduced into a large empty space, will 
always expand so as to fill the entire space. A 
gas may therefore be defined as matter in the 
gaseous state. An important property of gases 
is that they may be liquefied, and all gases, even 
the volatile hydrogen, have been reduced to the 
liquid state, and many of them to the solid. 
Illuminating gas is an inflammable gas pro¬ 
duced by distillation from coal, petroleum, or 
other carbonaceous material. It is very largely 
used in cities for lighting and heating purposes, 
being conveyed in pipes from a central generat¬ 
ing station, carried into houses, and burned at a 
small opening in a gas burner. Natural gas 
arises from wells in the earth in petroleum dis¬ 
tricts, and is similarly burned for house lighting, 
heating, and manufacturing purposes. Gas was 
first used for lighting in England about 1800, in 
the United States, at Boston, in 1822 ; New York 
in 1827, and Philadelphia in 1835. 

Gas=engine. An engine in which the piston is 
worked by the alternate admission and condensa¬ 
tion of gas in the cylinder. When a mixture of 
coal-gas and common air or of oxygen and hy¬ 
drogen is used, condensation is produced by 
an explosion caused by an electric spark or a 
gas jet. 

Gas=meters. As coal-gas enters each house it is 
made to pass through an iron box called a gas- 
meter. Within this box are wheels, which are 
turned by the gas; and connected with the wheels, 
but on the outside of the box, are three dials, on 
which is recorded the number of cubic feet of gas 
entering the house in any given time. The 
figures 011 the left-hand dial stand for hundreds 
of thousands, those on the middle dial for tens 
of thousands, and those on the right-hand dial 
for thousands of cubic feet. To read the index, 
put down the figure next behind the pointer on 
each dial, and add two ciphers. I11 this way, if 
the index is found to record 16,700 cubic feet of 
gas, and at the next examination it records 18,300 
cubic feet; then by subtracting we find that 1,600 
cubic feet of gas has passed through the meter 
in the interval.— Gasometer , a large tank for 
holding gas. 


643 





68 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Gas'tric Juice. The thin watery fluid, with an 
acid reaction, secreted by a set of glands in the 
mucous membrane of the stomach. It is the 
most important digestive fluid in the body. 

Gauge. [Fr.[ A class of measuring instruments, 
whereof each has a specific name to indicate the 
kind of measurement for which it is to be used. 
Instruments of this nature are used for a variety 
of purposes, such as finding the capacity of a 
vessel (as in gauging a barrel), or in ascertaining 
the pressure of steam or the force of the wind or 
the amount of rainfall. 

The standard gauge, or distance between the 
rails, in railways is 4 feet 8)4 inches. Broad 
gauge is 7 feet in England and 6 feet in the 
United States. Any gauge less than standard is 
called narrow gauge. 

Gauze. [Fr.] A fine, thin silk cloth first brought 
from Gaza ; cloth of linen, cotton, fine wire, or 
thin fabric like silk gauze. There is a flannel 
called gauze flannel. 

Gazelle 7 . [Fr., from Arab.] A small, beautiful 
and graceful kind of antelope found chiefly in 
Arabia and Syria, also in Africa, with black, 
incurved lyre-shaped horns, and soft eyes. They 
roam in herds, and are the prey of the lion and 
the panther. When attacked they arrange them¬ 
selves in a circle and present their horns like the 
bayonets of a regiment of soldiers. 

Geiss / ler’s Tube. A glass tube in which an almost 
perfect vacuum is produced, and through which 
an electrical current is sent. In passing through 
the vacuum it yields a soft light. These tubes, 
as modified by Sir William Crookes, yield the 
light from which the Rontgen ray or X-ray is 
produced. 

GeFatine or Gelatin. [Fr., from E. gelatus , 
frozen.] An animal substance of a nitrogenous 
nature, supposed to be closely connected with 
the albuminous substances. It does not exist 
already formed in the animal tissues, but is ob¬ 
tained by the action of boiling water on connec¬ 
tive tissues, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. 
When its solution in boiling water cools, it forms 
a tremulous jelly. It is nutritious, and much 
used in soups and jellies. It dissolves in hot 
water and in acetic acid, but is insoluble in 
alcohol. It is largely used in many photographic 
processes. A powerful explosive known as explo¬ 
sive gelatine is made by dissolving 5 parts of 
gun-cotton in 95 parts of nitro-glycerine gently 
heated in a water bath. (See Isinglass .) 

Gems / bok. A South African antelope with long, 
sharp and nearly straight horns. 

GeoFogy. [Gk.] The science which Ireats of 
the history and structure of the earth. The rocks 
which compose the crust of the earth have not 
all been formed in the same way. Some have 
cooled from a state of fusion, and are known as 
igneous rocks. This class is represented by 
such rocks as granite, syenite, traps, and lavas. 
Metamorphic rock s are those which have either 
originally been deposited in water and have be¬ 
come changed into crystalline rock, or those 
•which,originally crystalline, have become foliated 
in structure under great pressure. Sedimentary 

644 


rocks comprise the various deposits which are 
laid down on the bed of the sea or on the land. 
They have all been formed from sediment 



washed by rain and streams from the land,and, be¬ 
ing thus derivative, imply the existence of older 
rock. This division forms the larger part of the 
earth’s crust, and is the most important for the 
geologist, since it contains most of the materials 
from which the geological history of the earth 
is worked out. These rocks are arranged in 
strata or layers, which have been much lifted, 
contorted and broken. When they are bent 
with curve upwards, they are called Anticlinal. 
They include sandstones, limestones, slates or 
claystones, etc., their ages depending on their 
relative position. When the age of a rock strata 
is in doubt it is frequently learned from the 
animal or plant fossils it may contain. 

Gera / nium. [Gk. geranos, a crane.] A genus of 
plants with seed-vessels like a crane’s bill. Most 
of them have showy flowers and a pungent odor. 
This group includes the commonly cultivated 
“geraniums ” ( Pelargoniums ) which are mostly 
natives of South Africa. 

Germ. [Fr., from ~L.germen, a sprout.] The first 
form of anything living, from which the egg and 
the embryo develop. Disease germs are minute 
spores or organisms called bacteria, bacilli, and 

microbes, which are 
now known to cause 
disease. Most forms 
of microbes are 
healthful and many 
of them very useful, 
the hurtful species 
being few in num¬ 
ber. Dr. Frankland 
found 20,222 mic¬ 
robes in one cubic 
centimetre of 
Thames water, and 
a'ter filtration 401 in 
the same quantity 
of water. In the air 
after high winds 
germs are numer¬ 
ous, but after rain 
their number is 
small. Bacillus is a 
long rod form and 
bacterium a smaller rod form of germ. 

Ger'man Silver. An alloy of zinc, nickel, and 
copper. It is used in the manufacture of nume¬ 
rous articles, such as spoons, forks, jugs, teapots, 
dish-covers, salvers, etc. The proportion of each 
















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


69 


ingredient is differentin different alloys. Spoons 
and forks are made from two parts copper, one 
nickel, one zinc. It is hard, and can take on a 
bright polish. 

Geyser. [Icel . geyser, from geysa, to gush.] 
The name applied to hot springs, such as were 
first observed in Iceland, which eject hot water 
violently either at irregular intervals or periodi¬ 
cally. The Great Geyser in Iceland throws up 
water to a height of from 80 to 120 feet. There 
are numerous geysers in the Yellowstone region 
of the United States, some of. which throw jets 
of water to a height of 200 feet. They are also 
met with in New Zealand and in California. 

Gi'la Monster. A large lizard found in the sandy 
deserts of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. It 
is covered with scales of brilliant orange and 
jet-black, hues, is one of the largest of North 
American lizards, and has a poisonous bite, its 
fangs being like those of venemous snakes. Its 
bite is injurious but rarely fatal to man. 

Gill. [Scand.] The opening by which fishes 
breathe {q.v.)> and the flap which covers it. Gills 
are usually thin fringes or plates, through which 
the blood circulates, and in which it is exposed 
to the action of the water, from which it absorbs 
oxygen. The gills of shrimps are the bag-like 
flaps that hang down where the legs join the 
body. The gills of an oyster are a delicate trans¬ 
parent frill of four-striped bands. 

Gim / let. [Fr.] A small instrument, with a cross 
handle, grooved body, and a sharp screw at the 
point, used for boring holes. 

Gimp. A kind of trimming used on dresses, 
curtains, and furniture. It is made of silk, wool, 
or cotton, stiffened by a fine wire or cord twisted 
among the threads. 

Gin. [Contraction of juniper .A liquid distilled 
from fermented wort and flavored with juniper 
berries. Often called liollauds because greatly 
made in Holland. Common gin is flavored with 
turpentine. 

Gin / ger. [Fr., from L- Zingiber .] The root- 
stock of a plant which grows in the East In¬ 
dies, Africa, and the West Indies. The finest 
ginger is from Jamaica. Ginger is useful for 
headaches and asthma, and for flavoring cakes, 
puddings, ginger-bread, etc. The pale-yellow 
ginger is the finest; black ginger is of an inferior 
quality, and is sometimes made into ground 
ginger. When whitened by chloride of lime, 
ginger is called bleached ginger. Preserved 
ginger is the ginger preserved while soft in a 
thick syrup. It is imported from India and 
China. 

Gin / ger=bread. Sweet bread seasoned with 
ginger. There is a palm in Egypt called the 
ginger-bread tree, because its bark looks like 
ginger-bread. 

Gingflham. [Fr.] A kind of cotton cloth made 
in Guingamp. in Brittany. Some ginghams are 
of one color, but others are woven in stripes or 
checks. The origin of gingham is also given as 
from a Javanese word, and the cloth so called is 
said to have been first made in India. 


Giraffe 7 . [Fr., from Arab.] A ruminant animal 
with permanent horns in both sexes, and dis¬ 
tinguished by the length of its legs and the 
remarkable length of its neck. It has points of 
affinity with the deer, the antelope, and the 
camel, and others peculiar to itself. It is the 
tallest animal in existence, measuring in some 
cases from 18 to 20 feet from the top of its head 
to the ground. Its home is in the woods of 
South Africa. Leaves of acacia trees are its 
chief food. It also eats green herbs, but to do 
this it stretches out its fore feet and bends its 
neck to collect the grass. Its eye is very beauti¬ 
ful and large, and shaded with long eyelashes. 
Its enemy is the lion, which watches for it when 
drinking on the margin of rivers and pools. It 
fights by kicking with its hind legs, delivering 
blows with great rapidity, and often wounding 
and driving off the lion. It is not easily over¬ 
taken even by a fast horse. It is also known as 
the Camelopard , (from Gr. kamelos , camel; and 
pardalis, leopard.) 

Gir 7 der. [AS.] A strong beam in a building, 
supported at both ends, for binding the others 
together. Half-lattice girder, a girder consist¬ 
ing of horizontal upper and lower bars connected 
by a series of diagonal bars sloping alternately 
in opposite directions, so as to divide the space 
between the bars into a series of triangles. 

Gir'dle. A narrow band of cloth or leather for the 
waist. Venus girdle is a long, flat, ribbon-like, 
transparent, comb-like marine animal which 
lives in the open sea. 

Giz'zard. [Fr.] A bird’s stomach. A hen swal¬ 
lows food without chewing, which is at once 
Stored in the crop, where it remains till it is 
softened. The food then passes into the gizzard, 
where it is rubbed and ground between tough, 



THE MER-DE-GLACE GLACIER. 

hard ribs, like the grooves of a wash-board. To 
help in this, the gizzard is filled with sharp stones 
and bits of gravel. These are the hen’s teeth, 

6 45 









70 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


and they do their work while she is gathering 
food or roosting. The gizzard of the grasshopper 
has over two hundred teeth or ribs for grinding 
its food. 

QIa / cial Age. A geological period of late date in 
which low temperature continued for many cen¬ 
turies and vast glaciers made their way down¬ 
wards from the polar regions into the temperate 
zone, leaving their marks in scratched rocks, 
terminal heaps of stones, and other indications. 

Gla 'ciers. [Fr., from E., glacies, ice.] Slow- 
moving rivers of ice, which derive their origin 
from the snow which falls on the higher slopes 
of lofty mountains. As the snow accumulates on 
the steep slopes, it acquires a tendency to de¬ 
scend under the influence of its own weight. In 
some cases it slides down slowly, and in others it 
breaks off in large sheets, which rush down 
rapidly, forming what is known as an avalanche. 
These snows, as they descend, gradually become 
compacted into ice and form glaciers, which ex¬ 
tend along channels in the mountain sides to the 
valleys below. They are widely distributed, being 
met with in different parts of the American con¬ 
tinent, and in Greenland; in Europe they occur 
in the Alps, in Norway , and in the Pyrenees ; and 
in Asia in the Himalayas. 

Gland. [Fr., from E. glans , acorn.] A knot of 
nerves, blood-vessels, and flesh in the body for 
drawing off certain substances from the blood. 
Each of the thousands of pores of the skin is 
really an outlet of a tube which connects with a 
sweat-gland absorbing water from the blood. Two 
oil-glands are attached to each hair, and the 
natural oil ought to be sufficient for the hair. 
The oily matter runs out of the skin and mixes 
with the sweat. The sweat produced by the skin 
of an ordinary man in twenty-four hours meas¬ 
ures a pint and a quarter, and weighs i l / 2 Ik- 

Glass. [AS.] A substance composed of a mixture 
of two silicates—one being a silicate of an alkali 
metal, and .the other a silicate of an alkaline 
earth. There are four different kinds of glass, 
each of which possesses special properties suited 
to the particular purpose for which it is used, 
i. Crown glass, sheet glass, and plate glass are 
each composed of the same materials—namely, 
silicates of sodium and calcium ; but the method 
of manufacture is different in each case. Crown 
glass w T as at one time the only kind used in Pmg- 
land for windows, but it has been superseded by 
sheet glass. For plate glass great care is taken 
in the selection of the materials, and the propor¬ 
tion of lime used is somewhat less than in the 
other two kinds. 2. Bohemian glass consists of 
silicates of potassium and calcium. This glass is 
very hard and difficult to melt, and is much used 
for chemical apparatus, or whenever a glass is 
required which can withstand heat. 3. Flint glass, 
or crystal, contains silicates of potassium and lead. 
It is employed for table glass, globes, ornaments, 
etc. Glass for optical purposes is made both of 
flint and crown glass. 4. Bottle glass is an im¬ 
pure mixture of various silicates, such as sodium, 
calcium, iron, and aluminium. In this variety 
the color and quality of the glass are not of the 
646 


same importance as in the other three kinds. In 
glass manufacture the materials are melted to¬ 
gether in a highly heated crucible. A portion of 
the melted mixture is then taken up by the glass- 

blower on the end 
of a long tube, 
and blown by him 
i n to a hollow pear- 
shaped bulb. It 
is then given the 
desired shape by 
various processes 
of handling. 
Many articles of 
glass are formed 
in moulds, and 
other methods of 
manufacture are 
employed. The 
grinding and cut¬ 
ting of glass are 
subsequent pro¬ 
cesses for the pur¬ 
pose of ornament¬ 
ation. 

Glass=sponge. 

A sponge which 
forms a frame¬ 
work of spicules 
of silica, which, 
when the fleshy 
parts are washed 
away, looks like 
the finest spun 
glass. One species is the handsome Venus flower- 
basket, another is the Japanese glass rope sponge. 

Globe. [Fr., from E. globus , ball.] A round 
body imitating the earth and made of some light 
material. At two opposite points are fixed two 
pins, round which it turns ; these are called the 
poles. The two pins produced through the cen¬ 
tre represent the axis of the globe. The pins 
turn in two holes made in a brass circle surround¬ 
ing the globe, called the brass meridian. Round 
the middle of the globe, at an equal distance 
from the poles, a circle is drawn, and divided 
into 360°, called the equator. Another great 
circle drawn round the globe, and inclined to the 
equator at an angle of 23^°, is called the ecliptic. 
It indicates the sun’s line of apparent annual 
motion. 

Glove. [AS.] A covering for the hand, with a 
separate place for each finger. Gloves are made 
of worsted, cotton, silk, or of different skins. 
The finest kid gloves are made from skins of 
kids, but coarser kinds are made from lamb, rat, 
and other thin skins. They are prepared and 
dyed, and punched into different shapes for the 
different pieces of the glove. The two edges to 
be sewn are placed in a vice having fine teeth 
like a comb. They are then damped and pressed. 

Glow = worm. [AS.] An insect that gives out 
light in the dark. The female is without wings, 
and emits the light to attract the male, which is 
winged. To keep Ihe light bright, this insect 
has a brush attached to its tail, with which it 










































































































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


7 1 


keeps its back clean. The light is emitted from 
segments of the abdomen. 

GIiTcose. [Gk. glykys , sweet] or Grape Sugar. 
A kind of sugar found in grapes, less sweet than 
cane sugar. In the United States it is chiefly 
prepared from corn starch, where the syrup is 
known commercially as glucose , and the solid 
product from the same source as starch sugar. 
In Europe it is made from potatoes. Glucose is 
used chiefly in the preparation of table syrups 
and confectionery, in brewing, in the prepara¬ 
tion of artificial honey, and as food for bees. 

Glue. [Fr., from L- gluten , glue.] A sticky ani¬ 
mal substance or kind of impure gelatine, hard, 
and of a bright brown color. When melted 
it is adhesive and tenacious. -It is made from 
the horns, hoofs, and sinews of various animals, 
or from scrapings and cuttings of their skins. 
These are cleansed, boiled, strained, boiled again, 
poured into layers or cut into squares and dried. 
Glue is very useful to the joiner and cabinet¬ 
maker. 

Glu'ten. [L-] A mixture of various vegetable 
albuminous substances found in the flour of 
wheat and other grains. It is a very tenacious 
substance, and contributes much to the nutritive 
properties of flour. 

Glycerine. [Gk. glykvs, sweet.] A colorless, in¬ 
odorous, syrupy liquid, having a very sweet taste, 
soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in 
ether and chloroform. It is obtained from fats. 
It has numerous uses both in the arts and in 
medicine. It is used in calico-printing, in per¬ 
fumery, in leather-making, and in the manufac¬ 
ture of copying ink. When added to water, it 
lowers the freezing point, and has in this way 
been serviceable in preventing the freezing of the 
water in gas-meters. In medicine it is applied 
externally for softening the skin, and it may be 
used as a substitute for cod-liver oil. Dissolved 
in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, it 
yields the powerful explosive called nitro-gly- 
cerine ( q.v .) 

Gnat. [AS.] A small insect with a sting ; a blood¬ 
sucking fly which undergoes changes of form in 
water. The females have a needle-shaped pro¬ 
boscis for penetrating the skin of plants and ani¬ 
mals. The mosquito is a gnat which injects 
poison into the wound it makes, and is very 
annoying in many localities. 

Gneiss. [Ger.] The name of a species of rock 
closely resembling granite. Like granite, it is 
composed of mica , quartz , and feldspar , but in 
separate layers. Its texture varies from a fine¬ 
grained rock up to a coarse crystalline. 

Gnu. A singular kind of antelope, sometimes 
called the horned horse, and found in South 
Africa. It is about the size of a half-grown colt. 
It has short brown hair and a white tail, and a 
mane on its neck. It has low bent horns and 
cloven feet, which have all the lightness of those 
of the stag. Its flesh is like venison, and is much 
esteemed. 

Goat. [AS.] A hoofed animal, closely related to 
the sheep, and found either wild or tame in 
almost every part of the world. It is easily tamed, 


and is a hardy, healthy animal. Its horns curve 
outward, its chin is bearded, its covering is of 
hair rather than wool, and its tail is short. It 
thrives on scanty pasture, where a sheep could 
not find support. Goats roam on hills, and in 
many countries are very numerous. Large flocks 
may be seen on the mountains of France, Swit¬ 
zerland, and Italy. The skin of the goat makes 
excellent leather ; that of the young goat or kid 
is used for gloves. Goat-skin also makes morocco 
leather. The fleece yields two kinds of hair, long 
and short. Ropes and lawyers’ wigs are made 
of goats’ hair. The hair of Cashmere goats is 
woven into fine shawls. The Angora goat re¬ 
sembles the Cashmere, and its hair is used in 
making zephyr cloth. 

Gold. [AS.] A precious metal, one of the metal¬ 
lic elements. It is distinguished by its bright- 
yellow color, its great ductility and malleability. 
It is nearly as soft as lead. It has always been 
highly prized for its beauty of color and lustre, 
and its power of resisting oxidation (not tarnish¬ 
ing in the air), and for the ease with which it can 
be worked into artistic and ornamental articles. 
Its scarcity has led to its adoption as a convenient 
medium of exchange. Gold is always found in the 
metallic state. It occurs in grains and strings, 
and occasionally in lumps or nuggets, and is 
found dispersed through the gravel deposits in 
districts where gold-bearing quartz veins traverse 
the solid rocks. In order to obtain the gold from 
the gravel or placer deposits, the sand contain¬ 
ing the-metal is washed in an apparatus called a 
cradle; by this means the lighter materials are 
washed away, and the gold being heavy, sinks to 
the bottom. Much gold is also obtained from 
quartz veins in the rocks, by costly processes of 
mining and extraction. Gold is found in nearly 
all countries. It occurs abundantly in Australia, 
North America, and Africa. Very rich deposits 
were discovered in Australia and California about 
fifty years ago, and in South Africa at a much 
later date. Much gold is now obtained in 
Alaska. 

Goldfinch. A beautiful song-bird of Europe, 
with gold-colored wings, and known as the 
yellow-bird. It has a black cap and wings, and is 
some times called American canary. (See Finch.') 

Gold=fish. A small domesticated fish of reddish- 
golden color, kept in ponds or in glass jars. It 
is a native of China, and was introduced into 
Europe in 1691. Many varieties are known. A 
monstrous variety of gold-fish, with protuberaut 
eyes, is called the telescope fish. 

Gold = leaf. This is gold hammered until it forms 
a very thin leaf. It can be beaten so thin that it 
would take a pile of 200,000 leaves to make an 
inch in height. It is used for gilding, by spread¬ 
ing it on wood and other substances. Leaves 
not so fine are used by dentists for filling teeth. 

Golf. [Du.] A game played with a variety of 
clubs and a ball, the object being to drive the 
ball into each of a number of holes (usually nine 
or eighteen) with the fewest strokes of the club. 
It is a Scotch game, which has of late years be¬ 
come very popular in the United States. 

647 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Gong. [Malay.] A round piece of bronze, with 
a rim round the edge, giving a loud sound when 
struck. Gong-metal is 78 parts of copper and 22 
of tin. 

Goose. [AS.] A swimming-bird of the same 
family as the swan and duck. It is common in 
most parts of the world. The gander is usually 
white and the female gray. The goose is larger 
than the duck. It feeds chiefly on rushes and 
insects. The common European goose is sup¬ 
posed to have been derived from the graylag 
goose. The bean goose, the American wild goose, 
and the Arctic goose are the best known kinds. 
The Cape Barren goose of Australia, though 
web-footed, never swims, but is a grazing-bird. 



CORNSTARCH CORPUSCLES 
Seen under the Microscope. 


Wild geese are of a grayish-brown color, and 
migrate from the tropics to northern regions and 
the reverse. They fly in two lines like the sides 
of a triangle, in flocks of from ten to one hundred. 
They nest in swamp grass, and, though undis¬ 
turbed by natural sounds, are quickly on the 
alert on the approach of the hunter. 

Gooseberry. [Fr. grose , meaning curled or 
hairy.] A fruit or berry, often rough with hairs, 
growing on a bush with sharp prickles. 

Gorina. [African.] A remarkable animal ; the 
largest of the ape or monkey tribe. It has 
immense canine teeth, powerful muscles, and 
great strength, and does not hesitate to attack 
the lion, yet it is a vegetarian. It lives in the 
dense African jungle. It walks in a peculiar 
way, swinging its body between its long arms. 
The females and young live much in the trees 
and the males on the ground. It is very fierce 
and difficult to capture and tame. 

Gos'samer. [O.E., goose summer, or Mary’s 
yarn or threads.] Thin webs or threads of webs 

648 


floating in the air, specially in fine weather or in 
the autumn. 

Gourd. The family of plants which includes the 
pumpkin, squash, melon, cucumber, etc. The 
bottle or calabash gourd, growing wild in Asia 
and Africa, bears a fruit like a water-bottle, 
whose rind is very hard when dry. It is used 
for bottles, dippers, and other purposes. 

Governor. An instrument used to regulate the 
supply of steam to the cylinder of a steam-engine. 
It consists of two heavy balls at the end of two 
rods, whose other ends are jointed to a shaft, 
turned by a strap from the engine. When the 
engine moves these balls revolve and separate by 
centrifugal force, becoming wider apart the faster 
the engine moves. They act upon a rod which 
operates the throttle-valve of the engine. When 
the engine is going too fast this valve is partly 
closed and the supply of steam reduced, when 
going too slow it is opened wider and more steam 
let in. By this means the supply of steam and 
speed of the engine are kept uniform. 

Graft. [Fr.] A bud or branch of one tree put 
into another, the stock of which is to support 
and nourish it. There are various kinds of graft¬ 
ing—cleft, rind, saddle, side, skin, splice, root, 
and tongue. 

Grain. [Fr., from E. granum .] A single hard 
seed of corn. The lines of fibres running along 
the length of a piece of wood. The grain is the 
unit of the English system of weights. The 
pound avoirdupois is 7,000 grains ; the pound 
troy is 5,760 grains. A grain is .0048 of a gramme. 

Gramme. The weight of one cubic centimetre of 
distilled water at the temperature of 4 0 C. (39.2 0 
F.), weighed at Paris. It is the unit of weight 
in the metric system. 

GranEophone. A kind of phonograph invented 
by E. Berliner about 1895. It has a circular 
plate of metal covered with a thin film of grease, 
which the tracing point scratches in a sinuous 
spiral line. The record is then etched into the 
plate by acids, and is reproduced in the usual 
manner. 

GraiEite [Ital. from L,. granum.'] A crystalline 
rock composed of mica, quartz, and feldspar. In 
granite each of these minerals is in fragments 
large enough to be recognized by the naked eye. 
It occurs in large masses, which have been in¬ 
truded in many other kinds of rock, and also in 
smaller masses and veins. It belongs to the class 
of eruptive rocks, or those which have been 
pushed up from beneath to the surface by the 
actiou of heat. It is met with in great abundance 
both in Europe and America, and is much used 
in public buildings, in making docks, and in 
paving streets. 

Grape. [Fr. from O. Ger.,a hook or cluster.] The 
berry or fruit of the vine (as one of a cluster). 
The berries are smooth-skinned, and have a 
juicy pulp, and are grown for table use and for 
making wine and raisins. The principal wine¬ 
making countries in Europe are France, Spain, 
Italy, Portugal, and Germany. Much wine is 
made in the United States. Many grapes are 
also grown in Greece, Australia, Cape of Good 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


73 


Hope, and other countries. The grapes of Greece 
and Asia Minor are made into raisins. 

Grape Sugar, (See Glucose .) 

GraphTte. Native carbon in six-sided crystals or 
in granules, with a black color and metallic lus¬ 
tre. It is used for pencils, for crucibles, and as a 
lubricator. 

Graph ophone. A modification of the phonograph, 
which uses, instead of tin-foil, a mixture of wax 
and paraffine spread upon paper. For commer¬ 
cial purposes this instrument may take the place 
of the stenographer, correspondence being dic¬ 
tated into it and reproduced by the copyist. For 
entertainment it will yield a great variety of 
speech, song, and music. 

Grass. [A.S.] Herbage; green fodder; the plant* 
which forms the food of cows, horses, and other 
hoofed animals; also the class of grain plants 
with narrow leaves and holllow stems, as wheat, 
oats, barley, rice, etc. A meadow is a field per¬ 
manently occupied by grass. When the grass is 
eaten off by animals it is called a pasture, and 
when allowed to grow and made into hay it is 
called meadow hay. Bamboos, though high, are 
also jointed like grasses. Grasses produce flour, 
meal, starch, sugar, beer, whiskey, paper and 
everything made from straw. 

Grass 'hopper. [A.S.] A small insect that hops 
among and feeds on grass in summer. Most 
grasshoppers are colored like the leaves and 
grasses on which they feed. They do not move 
in flocks, and are more active at night than by 
day. They cannot walk, but move by leaps. 
They have large wings, but do not fly far. The 
males makeashrill sound with their wings. The 
katydid makes a sound which is sometimes heard a 
quarter of a mile distant. The eggs of the grass¬ 
hopper are covered with a thick skin, and lie all 
winter in water. Turkeys and other fowls devour 
many grasshoppers. 

Grate. [Fow F-, a framework of bars.] A set of 
bars within which the fire burns. In ordinary 
fire-places most of the heat goes up the chimney, 
and to prevent this the back and sides of the 
grate are lined with fire-clay or made of fire¬ 
bricks, which reflect the heat into the room. 

Grav'el. [Fr.] Foose, rounded, water-worn frag¬ 
ments of rock in which the pebbles range in size 
from a pea to a walnut. When smaller, they 
form sand ; and when larger, shingle. Gravel is 
formed by the action of rivers and of the sea ; 
and, since the pieces of the harder species of 
rocks are best able to withstand the action of 
water, gravel is found to consist chiefly of frag¬ 
ments of quartz and other silicious materials. 

Gravitation. The name given by Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton to his law of attraction, by which every atom 
in the universe attracts every other atom, with a 
force varying with distance. It is this force 
which holds the heavenly bodies in their places, 
causes the planets to revolve round the sun, and 
makes falling bodies descend to the earth. The 
force of attraction is called gravity. On the 
earth it causes a body to fall 32.2 feet a second. 

Grebe. A crested swimming-bird about the size 
of a duck. When swimming it steadies its legs 


at the rear end of its body, and paddles with its 
lobate toes in the water. Its nest is a light raft, 
and floats on the lakes and ponds, where the tall 
rushes and reeds grow. If an enemy discovers 
the nest, the bird puts one foot out, and, using it 
as a paddle, guides the nest to safer w T aters. As 
soon as the young are hatched the male leads the 
little ones into the water. When they are tired of 
swimming they mount upon the backs of the old 
birds. The mother bird induces them to dive by 
holding food in her beak, going backwards as 
they come near, until she gets them to go under 
the water to catch it. 

Grippe. (See Influenza). 

Grouse. [Fr.] A game-bird that lives among 
heather on hills. It inhabits Europe, Asia, and 
North America. It has a plump body, strong, 
well feathered legs, and mottled plumage. Among 
the varieties are the red grouse, the hazel grouse, 
the ruffed grouse, the pine grouse, and the spruce 
partridge. 

Grub. [AS.] A worm or larva produced from 
the eggs of moths, beetles, etc. Grubber is a 
machine or tool for uprooting stumps or break¬ 
ing roots. 

GuaTio. [Span.] The dung of a sea-fowl, used as 
a manure, because it contains an abundance of 
the silicious skeletons of animalcules, and is rich 
in phosphates and ammonia. Guano was first 
brought to Fiverpool in 1839, from the Chincha 
Islands on the coast of Peru, but is now exhausted 
there. It is now obtained from the Macabi and 
the Huanape Islands. Countless numbers of sea¬ 
birds have lived on these islands for thousands of 
years, and as rain seldom falls their excrement 
lias accumulated to a depth of 200 feet. Guano 
has a pungent smell, due to the ammonia it con¬ 
tains. By adding to the guano some sawdust 
wetted with sulphuric acid, the ammonia is fixed, 
so that its loss is prevented. Guano is an excel¬ 
lent manure for wheat, potatoes, and green crops 
on strong clay soils. I11 the great bat-caves of 
San Antonio, Texas, a shaft has been sunk some 
hundreds of feet back from the mouth, by means 
of which it is possible to dig out the guano of the 
bats without disturbing the enormous number of 
sleeping bats that doze there during the day. 
The guano of these bats is the finest exported, 
because never exposed to rains, which wash out 
much of the virtue of Peruvian guano. 

GuiPlemot. [Fr.] One of several northern sea¬ 
birds allied to the auk. It has short legs placed 
far back, and is expert at diving and swimming. 
The common guillemot or murre is abundant 
on the northern coasts of Europe and America, 
and lays one or two eggs on the barren rocks with¬ 
out any nest. 

Guillotine. [Fr.] An instrument with an up¬ 
right frame and a heavy axe, used in France for 
executions; also a paper-cutting machine with 
descending knife worked by hand or steam. 

Guinea. [African.] A coin first made in 1663 of 
gold from Guinea in Africa, worth 21s. No 
guineas have been coined since 1817. 

Guin / ea=fowI or Guin / ea=hen. A bird somewhat 
like a turkey, of a dark-gray color and with white 

649 




74 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


spots. Its neck is long, and its head has*a top- 
knot, and a fleshy horn on each side. It is noisy 
and quarrelsome in the farm-yard, but its noise 
protects poultry from the hawk. Its flesh is a 
delicacy, and its eggs are valued for their richness. 

Guin'ea=pig. A small rodent animal from South 
America, somewhat like a pig, but also like a 
rabbit. It has short glossy fur, dark brown or 
white, with black, white, or yellow patches, or 
tortoise-shell colors. It feeds on vegetables, 
especially parsley and carrot tops. It is also called 
cavy, (A. Cavia.) 

Guitar'. [Fr., from Gk.] A musical instrument 
with six strings, the three highest of which are 
of catgut, and the three lowest of silk covered 
with silver wire. 

Gulf Stream. A great ocean current of warm 
water, which flows in the Atlantic from the 
equatorial region, through the Gulf of Mexico, 
and along the eastern coast of the United States 
at some distance from land. Its waters cross the 
ocean and reach the shores of Europe, whose 
climate is made warmer by its heat. 

Gull. [Celt.] A web-footed sea-bird. Gulls live 
upon fish, but many follow ships for long 



COFFEE ADULTERATED WITH CHICORY, MAGNIFIED. 


distances to pick up the pieces of food thrown 
overboard. They also rob weaker birds of their 
food, and have been known to snatch fish from 
the beaks of pelicans. They vary in size, some 
being small like pigeons, others about 17 inches 
long. The bill is yellow, and the feet and 
legs of a greenish-white color. The back and 
wings are gray, but the head, breast, tail, and 
under part of the body are pure white. The gull 
lays three eggs of brownish-olive color, nearly as 
large as those of the common fowl. All gulls 
have weak feet and three webbed toes. The 
largest gulls are the burgomaster or glaucus gull, 
and the skua or Arctic gull, which frequent the 

650 


Arctic regions. The tern or sea-swallow has long 
slender wings. The albatross ( q.v .) is another 
large gull. The stormy petrel (q-v.) is the 
smallest of web footed birds. 

Gum. [Fr., from Gk. konnni.'] The sticky or 
adhesive juice of certain trees or plants. Vege¬ 
table resins are insoluble in water, but soluble in 
spirits. Gum resins are soluble in either water 
or spirits. Gum copal is a fossil dug out of the 
ground in various parts of the earth. It is 
brought in large quantities from the east coast of 
Africa. It is found in the sandy plains about a 
foot from the surface, and is derived from trees 
of recent times, while amber is from forests of a 
past geological period. Gum arabic is the juice 
of several acacia trees that grow in Arabia, India, 
and Africa, and dissolves in water. Dextrin is 
made from starch by mixing it with nitric acid, 
and is now used instead of natural gums. It is 
used in calico-printing and for postage-stamps. 
The Gum tree of Australia is the eucatyptus 
(q.v.), with rigid leaves turned to the zenith, and 
secreting resinous gums. Two American trees 
are known as the sour gum and the sweet gum. 

Gun. An instrument made of a hollow tube for 
firing shots by means of explosives. The word 
is applied to the ordinary musket and rifle, and 
also to cannon of all sizes. Guns increased 
enormously in size during the past century. 
The heaviest cannon on Nelson’s ship, the Vic¬ 
tory, had a 68-pound ball. Cannons are now 
made which will send a ball of more than a ton 
weight. 

Gun = Cotton. An explosive prepared by steeping 
cotton-wool in a mixture of equal volumes of 
strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The cotton, 
after drying, is not perceptibly altered in appear¬ 
ance, but its weight has increased about 70 per 
cent., and it has become very inflammable. It is 
largely used instead of gunpowder, over which 
it possesses several advantages. The explosive 
power of one pound of gun-cotton is more than 
three times that of the same weight of gunpow¬ 
der. Collodion, used bv photographers, is gun¬ 
cotton combined with alcohol and ether. Cellu¬ 
loid is gun-cotton combined with camphor and 
other substances. 

Gun=metal. A bronze usually composed of nine 
parts of copper and one of tin, used for cannon. 

Gun'ny. A cloth made of jute fibre. Gunny cloth 
is a coarse bagging in which pepper, ginger, 
sugar, etc., are shipped from India. It is also 
brought to the United States and used to cover 
cotton bales. 

Gun powder. A well-known explosive, consisting 
of an intimate mixture of nitre, charcoal and 
sulphur. In the manufacture of gunpowder the 
ingredients selected must be perfectly pure, and 
they must be reduced to powder separately. 
They are then roughly mixed, sprinkled with 
water, and formed into a cake, which is after¬ 
wards broken up, granulated, and separated into 
classes by sieves of different sizes of mesh. The 
violence of the explosive power of the substance 
is due to the sudden evolution of large quantities 
of gas. Gunpowder is supposed to have been 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


75 


known to the Chinese before the Christian era, 
but is believed to have been first used in warfare 

in the seventh century by 
the Byzantine emperors in 
the defence of Constanti¬ 
nople. 

Gur'net and Gur'nard. 

[Fr., from L- grunnire , to 
grunt.] A kind of marine 
fish, supposed to make a 
grunting noise when taken 
out of water by the vibra¬ 
tion of the muscles of its 
air bladder. It has a large 
and spiny head, with mail 
ed cheeks and large eyes. 
Some gurnards are highly 
esteemed for food. The 
flying gurnard is found 
in the Atlantic, and is able 
to fly like the flying-fish. 
It has large pectoral fins 
filled with nerves, by the 
aid of which smaller animals 
are detected. Thus they 
serve as food-providers. 
us / set. [Fr., from Ital. guscio , a husk or pod.] 
A small piece of cloth let into a garment for 


strengthening or widening it, especially under 
the arm-hole of a shirt. 

Gut / ta = per / cha. [Malay.] The hardened juice or 
gum ofa tree called percha, common in the Malay 
Islands.. (See Caoutchouc and India Rubber.) 

Gymnastics. [Gr.] A series of exercises ar¬ 
ranged according to method for developing and 
strenghtening the muscles and bodily organs. 
These include work with dumb-bells, Indian- 
clubs, wands etc. 

Gyp / sum. [Gk. gypsos, chalk.] Sulphate of 1 ime 
a common mineral, of which there are large beds 
in many parts of the United States. When 
burned and ground it becomes plaster of Paris. 
Ground gypsum is often used by farmers as a 
manure. Alabaster is a fine grained white or 
light-colored gypsum. Satin spar, a beautiful 
fibrous variety, is used for necklaces and inlaid 
work. 

Gy / roscope. [Gk. gyros , a circle ; and skopein, 
to see.] An apparatus consisting of a heavy ro¬ 
tating disk mounted on gimbals, so that it can 
turn in any direction. When rotating it will 
constantly point to the same star, and may 
therefore be employed to show that the apparent 
rotation of the heavenly bodies is due to the 
rotation of the earth on its axis in the opposite 
direction. 



H 


had / dock. ( Gadus ceglefinus.) A food fish of 

the Cod family, found in large shoals not far from 
the shore. It weighs from 2 to 4 lbs., and is 
distinguished by a large black spot on each side, 
fabled to be the prints of the finger and thumb of 
St. Peter when he took the tribute-money from 
its mouth. The haddock is found off the Irish 
and Scottish coasts, and from New York to the 
Arctic Circle in the Atlantic. Large quantities 
are cured in the fishing villages of the east coast 
of Scotland. The method employed is to cleanse 
the haddock, steep it for a short time in brine, 
and smoke it over a wood fire. This was first done 
in the village of Findon, Kincardineshire, and 
the fish cured in this way are now known by the 
name of Findon or “ Finnan ” haddocks. 

Hail. [AS. hagel.~\ Frozen water falling from the 
clouds. There are two kinds of hail, the small 
grains, which often fall in winter, and generally 
come before snow; and larger hail, which falls 
usually in hot weather. The first kind is caused 
by the freezing of rain drops as they fall through 
air colder than that from which they started. 
How the second kind is formed is not well known. 
It is supposed to be the result of a tornado whirl 
in the upper air. Sometimes the particles of hail 
meeting congeal into large masses called hail¬ 
stones. These hailstones often do great harm to 
crops. 

Hair. A fine thread-like substance, of various 
forms and colors, developed from the outer skin 
of mammals. Each hair consists of a shaft and 
root. The shaft or part above the skin does not 
grow, but the bulb or part under the skin, which 


is made up of little cells, grows by forming new 
cells, the old ones being pressed forward, and 
becoming a part of the shaft. Its color is said to 
be caused by a kind of oil which comes from the 
cells in the bulb. Porcupine quills, hedgehog 
spiues, and rhinoceros horn are all developments 
of hair. Straight hair is nearly round, but curly 
or crisp hair, like that of the negro, is flattened, 
and the hair of the Bushman in Africa is nearly 
as flat as a ribbon. Hair is very strong and very 
lasting. It is also very elastic or springy, and for 
this reason is much used for stuffing cushions, 
mattresses, sofas, etc. Horse hair 
E is used for making hair-cloth and 
other purposes, and the hair of 
cows, camels, goats, and dogs is 
used for weaving, and the hair and 
fur of beavers, rabbits, and other 
small animals for making felt. 
Hogs’ hair and bristles are largely 
used in brush-making. Human 
hair is used chiefly for making 
wigs, curls, etc. Most of it comes 
from France, Italy, Germany, Rus¬ 
sia, and South America. Young 
peasant women sell their hair to 
wandering dealers, who go round 
to collect it. These sell it to hair- 
mercliants, who partly dress it, and 
hair MAGNiFmn. se n it again to the wig-makers. 

’ G, a Fat-Cells. 0t ’ Human hair is also plaited into 
ornamental work, such as chains, 
brooches, and pictures and this has in some 
countries become a kind of art. 



























76 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


HaFibut. [O.E. Halt , holy ; and butte , flounder.] 
A large, flat sea-fish eaten on holidays. It weighs 
from ioo to 400 lbs., and is caught by hook and 
line from Spitzbergen to Iceland, and from Fin¬ 
land and Scandinavia to the British and French 
coasts, and along the Atlantic coast from New 
York northwards. The bait used is small herring. 

Hallow=even or Hallowe’en'. This is the even¬ 
ing of the 31st of October, so called as being the 
eve of All-Hallows, or festival of All-Saints, 
which falls on the 1st of November. It is a night 
on which spirits, good and evil, are supposed to 
be abroad and witches to hold high holiday. 
Then nuts and apples are in great demand, and 
are used for the purpose of foretelling future 
events in love affairs. I11 the north of England 
Hallowe’en is known as Nutcrack Night. 

Ha'lo. [Gk. halos , a round threshing-floor.] A 
white or colored circle of light round the sun or 
moon, lliese circles are due to the presence of 
ice crystals in the air. In paintings, the heads 
of holy persons are sometimes surrounded by a 
ring called a halo. 

Ham mer. [Sax. hamer .] A well-known tool 
used for driving nails, beating metals, etc. 
Hammers are of various sorts, but nearly all 
consist of an iron head fixed crosswise to a handle 
of wood. Almost every kind of trade has a 
hammer of its own. Power hammers are those 
which are worked by machinery. Among them 
are forge-hammers, used for hammering into 
shape heavy masses of red-hot iron ; and tilt- 
hammers, used for lighter w r ork, such as forging 
bars of steel. The steam forge-hammer was in¬ 
vented by Janies Nasmyth in 1839. 

Ham'mock. [Span, hamaca .] A kind of hang¬ 
ing bed, chiefly used by sailors. It consists of a 
piece of hempen cloth or of strong netting, 6 
feet long, and 4 feet wide, gathered together at 
each end and hung to hooks under the deck. 
Hammocks of netting are often swung from trees 
in gardens as a pleasant place for resting in fine 
weather. 

Hand. The extremity of the arm, consisting of 
the palm and fingers, connected with the arm at 
the wrist. In all there are 27 bones in the hand. 
Eight of these are carpal bon es, and form the wrist; 
5 are meta-carpal bones, found in the palm ; and 
14 are phalanges—2 in the thumb and 3 in each 
of the fingers. The hand is the organ of touch, 
and there is no part of the body where the sense 
of touch is so acute as at the tips of the fingers. 
The activity and pliancy of the movements of 
the hands are remarkably displayed in the play¬ 
ing of the pianist and violinist. A skillful pianist 
produces about 960 notes a minute in quick time; 
and this gives a fair idea of the rapidity of move¬ 
ment which can be attained by the hand. 

Han'dicapping. A term used in various sports 
and games to indicate the position of competitors, 
so that all shall have as nearly as possible an equal 
chance of winning. In horse-racing, weights are 
put upon horses not less than three years of age 
in proportion to their recorded performances. 
In foot racing, cycling contests, etc., competitors 
are started at different distances in proportion to 
652 


previous performances. In chess and draughts, 
certain “ men ” are given up by the better player; 
and so on in other cases. 

Hang'ing Garden. A series of magnificent gardens 
laid out on elevated terraces at Babylon. They 
were said to be 400 feet square, thus containing 
nearly four acres, and over 300 feet high. Water 



was forced up irom the Euphrates to cool the air, 
water the soil, and supply the fountains. 

Hansom. A low two wheeled cab closed in front 
by a lid-like apron and having a driver’s seat 
perched back of the top. It is drawn by one 
horse and used extensively in large cities to 
convey passengers from one point to another. 

Har'bor. [Sax. her e-berg a. ] A port or haven 
for ships. A general name given to any bay or 
inlet affording ships protection from the wind 
and sea. Some of these are natural, but many 
are constructed by breakwaters. In connection 
with harbors artificial docks are .constructed, in 
which the water is kept nearly at the same level, 
which gives facility in loading and unloading. 

Hard'pan. A stratum of hardened clay, sand, or 
gravel, from one to three feet under the soft soil, 
which it serves as a foundation. 

Hare. ( Lepus .) [Sax. haral\ A well-known 
animal, with long ears, a short tail, soft hair, and 
a divided upper lip. Hares are found almost all 
over the world. They differ from rabbits chiefly 
in their habits. Rabbits live together in burrows 
dug under the ground ; but hares live separately, 
each one making a nest of grass for itself. They 
pass the greater part of the day in sleep, and in 
the evening creep out to feed. Green vegetables 
and root crops are their chief food. Hares are 
very timid, and* move swiftly by leaps. They 
afford fine sport to the hunter, and in some 
countries are hunted with hounds. Their flesh 
is very good, and is much used for making soup. 

Har'lequin. The name of one of the characters 
in a pantomime ; of Italian origin. The harle¬ 
quin is the trickster and the wit of the play, and 
commits all sorts of knavish acts. 

Harmo'nium. A musical keyed instrument in 
which the tones are produced by forcing air 
by means of a bellows so as to cause the vibration 
of free metallic reeds. The first instrument of 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


7 7 


a really useful kind was the invention of Debain 
of Paris, iu the year 1840. This instrument has 
now become one of the most common for use in 
homes, schools, and places of worship. 

Harmless. [Fr. harnoisP\ The trappings of a 
draught-horse, whether for a wagon, coach, gig, 
etc. It may be said to consist of four parts: (1) 
the driving part, or bridle and reins ; (2) the 
drawing part, consisting of the collar, hames, 
and traces ; (3) the supporting part, for holding 
up the shafts, made up of the saddle and its parts; 
and (4) the holding-back part, or breeching. 

Harp. [Sax. hearpa.~\ A musical stringed instru¬ 
ment. It was very much esteemed by the 
ancients, and is pictured on the Egyptian monu¬ 
ments. The modern harp is in form nearly 
triangular, and the wires stretch from the upper 
part to one of the sides. It stands erect, and is 
played with both hands by pulling the strings 
with the fingers and thumbs. The harp is now 
sometimes used in an orchestra. 

Harpoon'. [Fr. harpon.~\ A spear or javelin used 
for the capture of whales and other large fish. 
It is made of iron, about 5 feet long, with a 
sharp flat point with barbs. The edges of the 
point are made sharp, so that it will go into the 
whale easily, and then the barbs keep it from 
pulling out. It is thrown by the hand, but some¬ 
times is discharged from a gun. The gun- 
harpoon is a short bar of iron, with a ring at the 
end to fasten a rope to. This is fired from a 
small cannon in the bow of the boat. 

Har' row. [Sw. harf.~\ An implement of agri¬ 
culture chiefly used for breaking up lumps of 
earth and smoothing ploughed land, and for 
covering the seeds previously sown. It consists 
of a frame of varied form, now chiefly made of 
iron, in which are fixed rows of iron spikes. 

Hat. [Sax. hczt.~\ The principal outdoor covering 
for the head. Hats are chiefly made of felt, silk, 
or straw. For felt hats the fur of rabbits and 
hares is used, and for commoner kinds sheep’s 
wool. Silk hats are made of two or three layers 
of calico saturated with varnishes, moulded into 
shape on wooden blocks, and covered with fine 
silk plush. In the manufacture of straw hats 
the straw commonly used is that of wheat or 
barley. 

Hawk. [Sax. hafoc.~\ A name common to many 
species of birds of prey belonging to the Falcon 
family. Hawks differ from time falcons by hav¬ 
ing shorter wings and an unnotched bill. (See 
Sparrow Hawk.) 

Hawk'ing. The art of training and flying hawks, 
to capture other birds. This practice, called 
falconry , is of high antiquity, and in old times 
was a favorite amusement with the rich, and to 
some extent with the poor. It has now gone out 
of use. 

Haw'thorn. [Sax. hczglhorn.'] A shrub or small 
tree which bears the haw. It is a native of 
Europe, Siberia, and the north of Africa. In 
Britain it is largely planted both for hedges and 
for ornament. 

Hay. [Sax. heg, hig. ] The stems and leaves of 
grasses cut and dried for fodder. After being 


mown, the grass is shaken up and spread abroad 
evenly over the ground, to be dried by the sun. 
This is continued for several days, the hay being 
raked into windrows at night and into small 
heaps if rain threatens. 

Hay Fever. A warm weather disease; its symptoms 
are those of common catarrh, yet very difficult 
to cure, and recurring annually at a fixed time. 
It is thought to be due to the pollen of certain 
plants. Some persons are very susceptible, but 
most people not at all so. 



HAWK. 

Ha'zel. [Sax. hczsel. ] A genus of nut-bear¬ 
ing plants or small trees of the order Coryleae. 
The hazel is a native of all the temperate parts of 
Europe and Asia. It is also common iu North 
America. In England the hazel is cultivated for 
its nuts {filberts), from which, on pressure, a 
valuable oil is obtained. The wood of the hazel 
is largely used—the smaller kind for making 
crates, baskets, hoops, whip-handles, etc. ; and 
the larger wood for charcoal, which is in great 
demand for forges, for the manufacture of gun¬ 
powder and of artists’ crayons. 

Heart. [Sax. heortP\ A hollow 7 muscular organ, 
with four chambers, iu the higher animals. It is 
the centre of the blood’s motion in an animal 
body, and is situated in the thorax. The blood 
flows from the veins to the two right chambers of 
the heart (auricle and ventricle), then to the 
lungs, next to the two left chambers, from which 
it is driven into the arteries. Thus the circula¬ 
tion is carried on and life maintained. The heart 
of a reptile has only three chambers, and of a 
fish only two, so that the blood is imperfectly 
aerated, and there is little animal heat. 

Heat. A force in nature known by its effects in 
fusion and evaporation. Formerly it was sup¬ 
posed to be a subtle fluid, which w T as known as 
caloric. It is now regarded as a kind of motion, 

653 














73 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


being in general a form of vibration or disturb¬ 
ance of molecules. One of the most important 
effects of heat is to alter the temperature of 
bodies. A piece of iron put into burning coals 
becomes hot, because the heat passes from the 
coals into the iron, until both have reached the 
same temperature. Heat also alters the dimen¬ 
sions of bodies. For example, the tire of a wheel 
is made a little too small, and when heated it en¬ 
larges so as to slip on easily. It cools down to 
the same size as it was at first, and then fits so 
tightly that it binds all parts of the wheel firmly 
together. The ends of rails are always left a lit 
tie way apart on railroads ; for if rails were laid 
close together the heat of the sun might expand 
them, and push them out of place. Heat is com¬ 
municated to different bodies in at least three 
distinct wavs. First, by convection, as when 
water is heated in a kettle (over the fire). Second, 
by conduction—that is heat traveling from one 
end of a substance to the other end. Hence we 
have good and bad conductors of heat. Metals 
are good conductors, glass is a bad conductor, 
and wood is a still worse one. This is the reason 
why iron tools for heating in fires have wooden 
handles fitted to them. A third way is called 
radiation. This may be best illustrated by plac¬ 
ing some substance near a fire. The heat passes 
over to it or is radiated to it from the fire. 

Heath. [AS. hoeth .] A genus of narrow leaved 
evergreen shrubs of many species (from 400 to 
500 are known). Over a dozen inhabit Europe, 
and have small pink flowers ; the remainder are 
natives of South Africa, many of them bearing 
brilliantly-colored flowers. Heather is a species 
of heath. 

Hedge. [AS. hege.~\ A fence of thorn bushes or 
other shrubs or small trees planted round a field, 
or in rows to separate the parts of a garden. 
Hedges are very common in many parts of Bri¬ 
tain and Italy, but comparatively rare in France 
and Germany, as well as in America. They are 
usually of one or more of the following species : 
hawthorn, blackthorn, privet, holly, beech, ma¬ 
ple, alder, poplar, willow, yew, sweet-brier, etc. 

Hedge / hog. [L. Erinaceus.~\ An insectivorous ani¬ 
mal, with the power of rolling itself into a ball, 

and with its 
hairs devel¬ 
oped into 
sharp, strong 
spines. Few 
animals care 
to attack it, 
and those 
that do are 
usually driv¬ 
en off by the 
armor of 
'spines. Four¬ 
teen species 
are found 

throughout Europe, Africa, and most of Asia. The 
common hedgehog is about 9 or 1.0 inches long, 
the spines on the back measuring about an inch. 
It is nocturnal in its habits, hibernates, and feeds 

654 


on insects, mice, and worms. It is useful in a 
garden, and has been rendered domestic, and 
used to destroy cockroaches. 

HeFmet. [AS. helan , to cover.] A head cover¬ 
ing formerly largely in use as a defensive armor. 
It is new chiefly used for ornament, but firemen 
wear it as a protection from falling materials at 
fires, and in hot countries helmets of white felt 
covered with rolls of linen are worn as a protec¬ 
tion against the sun’s rays. 

HenFatite. An abundant and valuable ore of 
iron, the sesqui-oxide. Vast quantities of it exist 
in the United States, especially in Michigan and 
Missouri. In the latter, two mountains, Pilot 
Knob and Iron Mountain, consist chiefly of this 
ore. 

Hemlock. [A S. hemleac.~\ A plant of the genus 
Conium , whose leaves and root are poisonous. 
The common or spotted hemlock is from 2 to 7 
feet in height, and grows by waysides and on 
heaps of rubbish. It is common in Europe and 
in some parts of Asia, and is now also a natural¬ 
ized plant in North America and Chili. A valu¬ 
able medicine is obtained from the leaves and 
fruit. Water hemlock grows in ditches, on the 
margins of ponds and on wet grounds in Europe 
aud the north of Asia. It is a very poisonous 
plant, and is the cause of many deaths. Hemlock 
spruce is an evergreen cone bearing tree, com¬ 
mon in North America. It is a beautiful tree, 
often growing to the height of 100 feet. The 
bark is largely used in tanning leather. 

Hemp. [AS. henep.~\ A fibrous plant of the genus 
Cannabis. It is cultivated in many parts of the 
world, but most largely in Poland and in the 
centre and south of European Russia. Hemp 
varies from 4 to 12 feet in height. The stem is 
hollow or filled with pith, and the bark contains 
a useful fibre, which is extracted and used for 
making canvas, ropes, sail-cloth, bagging, and 
other articles. The seed is often used to feed 
poultry and small birds, and it also yields an oil 
very good for burning, and also a narcotic resin 
called hasheesh. 

Herb. A plant with a soft stalk, and which bears 
flowers and fruit only once, and then dies. Some 
live one year only, others two or more years. 

Herbarium. [R. herba , a plant.] A collection of 
specimens of plants, carefully dried and pre¬ 
served. These collections are very valuable for 
the scientific study of plants, and there are some 
in existence which are centuries old. 

Her'on. [Fr.] The name of a large tribe of wad¬ 
ing birds found in almost every part of the globe. 
The body is small in proportion to the length of 
the neck and the legs. The legs are very long 
and slender, and the bill is longer than the'head, 
and comes to a sharp point. Herons feed mostly 
on fish, frogs, crabs, and other water animals. 
These they greedily devour. They build their 
nests in high trees near the water, and feed their 
young with fish until they are old enough to care 
for themselves. The European heron is remark¬ 
able for its directly-ascending flight, and was 
formerly hunted with the larger falcons. 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


79 


Hearing. ( Clupea harengus.) [AS. haring , 

from the root here , an army.] A well-known 
sea food-fish. Herrings are found on the shores 
of the North Sea, the North Atlantic, the Baltic, 
and the White Sea. They approach the coast 
every spring in order to spawn, and then the 
great herring-fishing season commences. They 
move about in immense schools—the main body 
often divided into columns of from five to six 
miles in length and from three to four in breadth 
—swimming near the top of the water, and fol¬ 
lowed by multitudes of larger fishes and by gulls, 
fish-hawks, and other sea-birds, which feed on 
them. Drift-nets are employed in catching her¬ 
ring. These are let out from boats, usually in 
the evening ; and when the fish are taken to” the 
shore they are cleaned, salted, and packed in 
barrels. The fish locally known as herring in 
the American rivers south of Maine is the ale- 
wife, of the sarnie genus as the shad. It is very 
abundant and much esteemed. There is 'also a 
Pacific herring whose abundance resembles that 
of the Atlantic species, and whose fishing is of 
growing importance. 

Hick'ory. A tree belonging to the Walnut family, 
found only in North America. The wood is 
tough and elastic, and is largely used to make 
hoops for casks. Handspikes, carriage shafts, 
wheel spokes, handles of axes and golf clubs, 
large screws, etc., are made of it. The trunk is 
slender and has a very rough bark, and the tree 
grows to a height of from 60 to ioo feet. The 
hickory-nut has a delicious flavor. One southern 
species yields the esteemed pecan-nut , others 
yield the pig-mit, bitter-nut , and mocker-nut. 

Hieroglyphics. The name applied to the ancient 
Egyptian writing, in which the forms of animals 
and natural objects stand for words, and some¬ 
times for syllables or letters. Chinese writing is 
similar in character, and all systems of writing 
are thought to have begun with hieroglyphics. 

Hippopotamus. [Gk. hippos , a horse ; and pota- 
mos , a river.] A large animal about 12 feet in 
length and 5 feet high at the shoulders, with 
short legs and four toes on each foot, a skin on 
the back and sides more than two inches thick 
—of dark-brown color and destitute of hair. It 
is found only in Africa, and lives mostly in lakes 
and rivers, and can remain a long time under 
water. At night it comes up on the banks of 
rivers, and feeds on plants and herbage. It lives 
in herds of from twenty to forty individuals. 
The hippopotamus is much hunted by the Afri¬ 
cans for its flesh, of which many of them are 
very fond. The hide is converted into shields, 
helmets, whips, and canes, and the large canine 
teeth are much valued for their ivory, and form 
a very considerable article of African commerce. 

Hive. [AS. hyfe.\ See Pee. 

Hog. The common name of the animal also called 
pig, and collectively swine. The eyes of the hog 
are very small and sunken, his nose is mobile, 
his form without beauty, his motions clumsy, 
and his appearance slothful and stupid. The 
hog is highly prized for its flesh, which supplies 
a chief article of food to many nations in the form J 



hogs 

moil 


1 SHOULDER 

2 LEG AND HAM 

3 HIND LOIN 


4 BRISKET 

5 SPARE-RIB 

6 HEAD 


7 FORE LOIN 


of pork, bacon, ham, sausage, etc. Its fat is made 
into lard, its skin into leather for the saddler and 
trunk-maker, and its bristles are largely used in 

the manufacture 
of brushes. Wild 
are com- 
in many 
countries, and 
are hunted in 
various places. 
They are dan¬ 
gerous on ac¬ 
count of their 
expert use of 
their tusks or 
long canine 
teeth. Wart-hogs have large lobes on each side 
of the face, and remarkably modified teeth. The 
African river-hog is of a gray color, and the 
West African red river-hog is remarkable for 
vivid coloring and long pencilled ears. 

Hogs 'head. Formerly a measure of capacity in 
use in England, containing 63 wine gallons and 
54 ale gallons. In the United States the measure 
is still in use, and the term there signifies a 
large cask containing from no to. 140 wine 
gallons. 

Hol'ly. [AS.] A shrub or tree with shining, 
prickly, and smooth and wavy leaves and scarlet 
berries. The common holly grows in Europe, 
and in some parts of Asia. It is largely used for 
hedges, and forms an excellent fence. The 
American holly is found along the coast of the 
United States. It grows to be a tree of consider¬ 
able size. The wood of both kinds is very hard, 
fine grained, and almost as white as ivory, and is 
much used by cabinetmakers, turners, and 
musical instrument makers. The bark yields a 
substance from which bird-lime is made, and is 
used as a febrifuge, while the berries are a 
violent purgative. Branches of holly are largely 
used at Christmas for decoration. The Brazilian 
or Paraguay holly yields leaves from which the 
mate or Paraguay tea is made. It is more 
exciting than ordinary tea, and if taken to excess 
produces a kind of intoxication. 

Holly 'hock. [AS. holihoc.~\ A well-known hardy 
plant, the Althcsa rosea , cultivated in gardens 
for its spikes of large and beautiful flowers. It 
is called also rose-mallow. 

Hom'iny. [W. Ind.] Maize hulled and crushed ; 
prepared for food by boiling in water. 

Hone. [AS. hail.'] A hard stone of very fine grit, 
used in sharpening knives, razors, and various 
sharp-edged tools. The best stone for hones is 
found in Arkansas and Turkey, and when in use 
is wet with oil. Coarser hones are usually called 
whetstones , and are wet with water. 

Hon'ey. [AS. hunig .] A very sweet substance 
collected by honey-bees from the juices in the 
flowers of plants, and deposited in the cells of 
the honeycomb. Heather honey is of a rich 
yellow color. Narbonne honey is white, and is 
made from rosemary flowers. The fine aroma of 
Maltese honey is due to orange blossoms. In 
the United States the finest is from forests of 

655 






8o 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


basswood and white-clover pastures ; also lioney 
from buckwheat is abundant. Honey is largely 
used as an article of food, in sweetmeats, in some 
kinds of ale, and also as a flavoring in medicines. 
The old intoxicating drink called mead was made 
from honey. 

Honeysuckle. A genus of flowering and climb¬ 
ing plants or shrubs, often planted in shrubberies 
and trained against walls on account of the 
beauty and delicious fragrance of their flowers. 

Hoof. [AS. hof.) The horny substance which 
incases the feet of horses, cows, sheep, etc. 
Horses’ hoofs, which are harder, are made into 
glue and ground up for artificial manure. 
Prussiate of potash, used for making Prussian 
blue for dyeing and calico printing, is made from 
horses’ hoofs. (See Horn.) 

Hop. [Du. hop.'] A well-known climbing plant, 
very extensively cultivated in the south-east of 
England. It is a native of Europe, and is now 
grown in the United States and in Australia and 
New Zealand. It is largely grown in some of the 
American States, especially in New York. The 
plant is cultivated for its flowers, which are 
gathered or picked dried in kilns, bleached with, 
sulphuric acid, and then used in making beer. 
They give it a bitter taste, and help to make it 
bright and clear. Hop bitters are used as a tonic. 

Hore'hound. [AS. harhune.) A small plant 
with whitish stem and flowers. It has an 
aromatic smell, and is a popular remedy in cases 
of coughs and asthma. 

HorPzon. [Gk .horizon.') A circular line touch¬ 
ing the earth, and formed by the apparent meet¬ 
ing of the earth and sky. This is called the 
visible or sensible horizon , while the great circle 
parallel to the sensible horizon, and passing 
through the earth’s centre, is the rational or 
celestial horizon. 

Horn. [AS.] A hard substance, usually of con¬ 
siderable length, growing on the heads of some 
animals, and also as the hoofs, claws, or nails of 
animals generally. The horns of the Ox family 
are never shed ; the antler of the deer is bone, 
and is shed annually. Horn is a tough, flexible, 
semi-transparent substance, and is softened by 
heat. It is composed of thickened albumen, 
with small portions of gelatine and phosphate of 
lime. Horn when heated may be moulded into 
almost any shape, which it will keep when cold. 
The horns of the ox, cow, bison, buffalo, sheep, 
goat, and antelope are made into many highly 
ornamental and useful articles—such as handles 
for knives, forks, umbrellas, and walking sticks ; 
also into spoons, snuff-boxes, buttons, etc. 
Combs are made from flattened sheets of horn, 
which are got after the horn has been steeped in 
water for a considerable time. 

Horn'bill. A bird of ungainly appearance, with 
large bill, helmet crowned, and found in India and 
Africa. By curious habit the male bird plasters 
the female in the hole of a hollow tree during 
nesting time. 

Horn or French Horn. One of the most important 
of wind musical instruments, much used in or¬ 
chestral music and in military bands. It gets its 

656 


name from the first horns having been made of 
the horns of animals. It produces a soft and 
peculiar tone, due to the length of the tube, 
which is coiled up into several rings, and has a 
large bell-shaped end. 

HoriUbiende. A tough mineral of black color, 



THE HORNBILL. 

due to a large percentage of oxide of iron. It 
forms part of several rocks, as trap, syenite, and 
hornblende slate, which is excellent for flagstone 
purposes. 

HoUnet. An insect belonging to the Wasp fam¬ 
ily, but much larger and stronger than the ordi¬ 
nary wasp, and whose sting gives severe pain. 
It is fully an inch in length. It forms its nest of 
a kind of paper-work made from bits of wood 
and bark, which it places in hollow trees and 
walls. It feeds on fruits, honey, and insects. 
Hornets, like bees, live in societies made up 
of males, females, and workers. The femalesand 
workers do all the work, and sting when disturbed. 
Their sting inflicts a painful wound, usually ac¬ 
companied with considerable swelling. The best 
applications for it are grated potatoes and sweet 
oil. 

Horn'pipe. A11 instrument of music formerly 
very common in Wales. It is also the name of 
a characteristic lively British dance much in 
favor among sailors. 

Horse. [AS. hors.) A beautiful animal, useful 
for carrying loads or drawing wagons. It is a 
most intelligent animal, knows its master well, 
and if kindly treated will always do its work 
















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONAR Y OF COMMON THINGS 


81 


willingly and cheerfully. The horse belongs 
to the genus Equus , which contains several 
species, including the horse, the ass, the 
d ua &S a » an d the zebra. Horses in a wild state 
are found in many countries, and are very 
numerous in South America. Almost every 
country has its own breed of horses, which is 
generally suited to the climate. The horses of 
Iceland are small, with thick shaggy hair. The 
Arabian horse is much larger, and is one of the 
finest of all breeds. The Barbary horse of North¬ 
ern Africa is much like the Arabian, but smaller. 
The British horse, from which the best horses in 
the United States have come, has much Arabian 
and Barb blood in it. It resembles the Arabian 
in appearance, but is much taller and longer. 
The best trotting-horses are found in the United 
States and in Canada. Draught horses, or horses 
used in drawing heavy loads, are reared in many 
countries. The Percheron breed, common in 
France, has been noted for hundreds of years. 
They are large, heavy horses, with large heads, 
and are much used for drawing business wagons. 
The principal parts of the body of a horse are— 
(i) the chest, (2) the withers, (3) the barrel, or 
part enclosed by the ribs, (4) the flanks, (5 ) 
the loins, and (6) the buttocks. The age of a 
horse may be ascertained from an inspection of 
its teeth. Horses sometimes live 30 years, but 
the average age is from 15 to 16 years. 

Horse=chest/nut. A large and ornamental tree, 
with large compound leaves, and bearing w T hite 
flowers and a fruit or nut with a prickly shell. 
The nuts have a bitter taste, and are sometimes 
used as food for cattle. In some countries chest¬ 
nuts are ground, and mixed with the food of 
horses ; hence the name horse-chestnut. They 
are also made into a strong paste for bookbinders 
and shoemakers, and in France and Switzerland 
they are used in cleaning woolens and in the 
washing and bleaching of linen. The bark of the 
tree is sometimes used in tanning leather. 

Horse=power or H.P. The power of lifting 33,000 
lbs. weight one foot high in a minute ; it is enti¬ 
tled indicated or nominal. 

Horse=rad / ish. A small plant with a stem about 
two feet high, but having a deeply-penetrating 
root, for which it is chiefly cultivated, and from 
which a highly valuable seasoning, of strongly 
acrid taste, is obtained. 

Horse=shoe. A shoe for horses, consisting of a plate 
of iron of a circular form. Horse-shoes are neces¬ 
sary as a protection to the foot on stony or hard 
roads, and they vary in size, shape, and strength 
according to the formation of the foot and the 
kind of work the horse has to perform. They 
were formerly all made by the hand, and many 
still are, but machinery is now largely employed 
in their manufacture. Modern farriery requires 
light, small shoes, with few nails, and that the 
shoe be put on without overheating, which is 
cruel, and injures the horn. 

Hosiery. A name given to hose or stockings, and 
used now to include all kinds of knitted articles. 
Stocking-knitting was all done by the hand, until 
William Lee, of Woodbridge, in Nottinghamshii e, 

42 


invented a knitting-frame. Many additions and 
improvements have since been made, so that now 
not only stockings and socks but nearly all articles 
of hosiery are made by a knitting-frame of one 
kind or other. 

Hos / pital. [Fr., from L. hospitalia , apartments 
for strangers.] A building used for the reception 
of sick persons, or for those who are unable to 
supply their own wants. Some hospitals are set 
apart entirely for the treatment of those suffering 
from disease, others for incurables ; some for the 
education of children, and others as homes for 
the poor and helpless. Naval and military hos¬ 
pitals are provided in all countries for the care of 
sailors and soldiers. 

Hos'tage. [Fr. OtageJ) A person left with an 
enemy or hostile power as a pledge to secure the 
performance of the articles or conditions of a 
treaty. 

Hot= House. A building warmed by stoves or fur¬ 
naces for rearing exotics or tender plants. A 
hot-bed is a garden bed covered with glass, to 
rear plants early in the season by the heat of the 
sun. 

Hound. [AS.] A dog used for hunting. The 
bloodhound, staghound, and foxhound hunt only 
by scent, and may be termed true hounds. To 
this class may be added the harrier and the bea¬ 
gle ; but the greyhound and the deerhound run 
by sight alone, and strictly speaking are not true 
hounds. 

Hour. [Fr., from L. hora, an hour.] A space of 
time equal to 60 minutes, or to i-2qth part of a 
day. The hours of the civifday begin at midnight. 
Since 1885 the hours of the astronomical day 
begin at midnight, and are counted from o to 24. 

Hour-glass. A kind of chronometer or instru¬ 
ment for measuring intervals of time. It is con¬ 
structed of glass, and consists of two bulbs, one 
above the other, connected by a narrow neck. 
The time is measured by the running of dry sand 
from the one bulb to the other, the quantity 
being adjusted to the time which each glass has 
been constructed to indicate. In the case of an 
hour-glass, as much sand is placed in one bulb as 
will take an hour to pass from it to the other. 
Hour-glasses were very much in use in churches 
during the 16th and 17th centuries, and speci¬ 
mens of very fine workmanship are still to be 
seen in several churches in England. (See Log.) 

Huck / aback. A kind of linen with raised figures 
on it, used for table-cloths and towels. 

Huckleberry. A shrub of the Heath family which 
grows wild over most of the United States, and 
yields a palatable berry. There are several kinds, 
some being low bushes, while the swamp blueberry 
grows several feet high, and bears a much larger 
berry. The billberry is the same as the blueberry. 
(See Whortleberry.) 

Hum / ble=bee. [Ger. hummel. ] It is often called 
bumble-bee. (S ee Bee.) 

Hum / ming=bird. The smallest and most beautiful 
of all birds, found only in America, and almost 
exclusively tropical. They get their name from 
the peculiar humming noise made by the rapid 
vibration of their wings. The muscles of their 

657 



82 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


wings are very strong. This enables them to fly 
with great swiftness, and to hover over a flower 
while they capture the minute insects in it and 
perhaps sip the nectareous juices. They do not 
sing, having only a kind of shrill chirp. Their 
nests are very pretty, made of mosses and lichens, 
and lined with cotton and any soft thing they 
can find. They are unsurpassed by any birds for 
their brilliant plumage, and some are ornamented 
with crests, tufts, or frills. Many fruitless attempts 
have been made to domesticate these beautiful 
birds. 

hur / dle. [AS. hyrdel.] Twigs, osiers, and sticks 
woven together; a frame of split timber or 
sticks for gates and fences. 

Hy'acinth. [Gk. hyakinthos , an iris.] A plant 
with a large rounded root and a beautiful flower 
of different colors. 

Hydraulics. The science of fluids in motion. Of 
its applications may be named the hydraulic 
ram, which pumps water by the force derived 
from a moving stream ; the hydraulic or hydro¬ 
static press, in which the pressure of a column of 
water exerts a powerful force ; and the hydraulic 
engine, which is operated by water pressure. 

Hy / drogen. [Gk. hydor, water ; and the root of 
gennao , to produce.] The lightest of the chem¬ 
ical elements. Hydrogen is a colorless and, when 



HRDROGEN GENERATOR. 


pure, tasteless gas. It is very inflammable, gives 
little light, but its flame is one of the hottest 
known. It is never found alone, but is always 
present in water. Pure hydrogen gas is about 
14^4 times lighter than atmospheric air. It is 
generated by pouring dilute sulphuric acid upon 
zinc and collecting the gas in a receiver over 
water. 

Hydromketer. [Gk. hydor, water ; and metrom, 
a measure.] An instrument for measuring the 
weight of a liquid as compared with an equal 
amount of water. 

Hye'na. [L,. hyena.'] A genus of carniverous 
quadrupeds, about the size of a large dog, and of 
fierce and almost untamable character. The back 
and neck of the hyena are covered with coarse, 
658 


shaggy hair, forming a sort of mane. The hinder 
parts are lower than the fore parts, and it has a 
large head and ears. Hyenas live in caverns and 
rocky places, and at night prowl about in search 
of food, which generally consists of dead ani¬ 
mals, but when very hungry whatever living 



THE HYENA. 


prey they can seize. The common or striped 
hyena is a native of Southern Asia, while the 
spotted hyena is found in Southern Africa. 

Hydropathy. [Gr. hydor, water ; and paskein, 
to suffer.] A mode of curing disease by the 
application of water. This is applied in various 
forms of the bath, also by enveloping the patient 
in a wet sheet. It has a bracing and tonic effect 
upon the system. 

Hydrophobia. [Gr. hydor, water ; fobos, fear.] 
A disease caused by the bite of a rabid ani¬ 
mal, and so called from the great dread which 
those who suffer from it have of water. Some 
doctors say that no such disease exists, the symp¬ 
toms being due to fear and nervous excitement. 
Pasteur claims that it is a bacterial disease, and 
can be cured by inoculation with attenuated virus. 

HypTiotism. [Gr. hypnos , sleep.] The science 
of what was once called mesmerism- and ani¬ 
mal magnetism. The subject in a hypnotic 
state comes under the sole control of the opera¬ 
tor, and acts under his suggestions, which 
seem reality to the patient. It is said that 
suggestions to perform a certain act at some 
future time will be obeyed, and in this way 
a criminal act might be done for which 
only the operator was responsible, the patient 
ceasing to be a free agent. Hypnotic sugges¬ 
tion is now used as a remedial agent, patients 
being induced to give up drinking, to cease 
other hurtful practices,to perform useful exercises 
or become diligent in study, etc. Also painful 
sensation is obviated, so that surgical operations 
can be performed without suffering. , 







































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 

I 


Ice. [AS. is, isa.] Water freezes into ice when 
its temperature falls to the freezing-point, which 
is 32° on the Fahrenheit thermometer, and zero 
on the Centigrade. Ice forms on the surface of 
water, which expands in freezing—that is, any- 
given quantity of water makes a larger volume of 
ice. The ice is therefore lighter than water, 
and this is the reason it floats. The expansion 
ot water by freezing produces very remarkable 
effects on rocks and stones, splitting the rocks 
open and cracking the stones. Ice "is found all 
the year round in the Polar regions, and on the 
tops of very high mountains. Glaciers are vast 
bodies of compressed snow and ice which move 
slowly down mountain sides. Icebergs are large 
masses which break away from glaciers on the 
Arctic coasts, and, falling into the water, float into 
warmer seas. Ice is now an important article of 
commerce, and is shipped in large quantities to 
warm countries, chiefly from the United States. 
Norway sends ice to Great Britain. Uarge 
quantities of ice are now made by freezing 
machines, in which cold is produced by chemical 
action. 

Ichneu'mon. An animal of the Civet family, 
though it closely resembles the weasels in form 
and habits. It is about 18 inches long and very 
slender. It feeds on birds, rats, reptiles, etc., 
and, though destructive to poultry, is valued 
for its slaughter of snakes, and destruction of 
their eggs, of which it is very fond. It also digs 
up and sucks the crocodile’s eggs, and on this 
account the Egyptians places it among their gods. 
Ichneumon flies are a family of insects which 
deposit their eggs in the bodies of other insects. 

Jgua'na. A reptile abundant in South America 
and the West Indies, of about 5 feet in length. 
It is of a green color with a bright yellow crest 
along the back. Though formidable in appear¬ 
ance, it is very timid, and is hunted for its 
delicate flesh, which tastes much like chicken. 

In 'cense. [L. incensum. ] The perfume produced 
by the burning of spices and gums. It is the 
symbol of prayer in churches. The powder, 
made up of benzoin, storax, and other resins, 
cascarilla bark, etc., is placed in a silver vessel 
hung by chains. As it burns, the smoke escapes 
through little holes, and fills the church with 
sweet odors. 

Inclined Plane. A sloping surface up which a 
weight can be pushed or rolled that could not be 
easily lifted. It is believed that the pyramids of 
Egypt were built by the use of great inclined 
planes, up which their heavy stones were dragged. 
It is now used on railroads in hilly countries and 
on many canals instead of locks, the boats being 
drawn up the sloping plane from one level to 
another. 

Incubator. [U. Incubo.] An apparatus for the 
artificial hatching of eggs, heat being applied in¬ 
stead of the natural warmth of the body. Several 
hundred eggs may be hatched in a single incuba¬ 
tor. 


India=rubber. The hardened juice of several 
kinds of trees, It is also known by the names 
caoutchouc and elastic gum or resin. The india- 
rubber of commerce comes chiefly from Mexico, 
South America, Madagascar, and the East Indies. 
The East Indian rubber is the juice of a kind of 
fig-tree, while the South American is that of the 
syringe-tree. A hole is made in the bark, and 
the juice is caught in a cup. It is pale yellow in 
color, and about as thick as cream, but when 
sp r ead out it hardens and becomes nearly pure 
white. Previous to the beginning of thiscentury 
india-rubber was used only for rubbing out pencil 
marks, but now its uses are very numerous. All 
kinds of elastic and waterproof goods are made 
from it. It is woven with silk, cotton, or woollen 
threads into a great number of fabrics. The discov¬ 
ery of the art of vulcanizing rubber by the addition 
of sulphur, which was made by Charles Good¬ 
year, an American, in 1839, has largely added to 
its uses. Tubes, fire-hose, and gas-pipes, elastic 
rings or bands, door and window springs, mats, 
boots and shoes, machinery belts, and many 
other useful things are made out of vulcanized 
rubber, which does not soften in hot weather like 
common rubber. Hard rubber or ebonite is 
made out of india-rubber and sulphur heated 
much hotter than vulcanized rubber. Canes, 
combs, backs of brushes, buttons, surgical instru¬ 
ments, picture-frames, knife handles, and a 
great variety of other things are made from 
ebonite. India-rubber mixed with sulphur and 
coal tar makes a substance so hard and black that 
it resembles jet. This may be cut and p dished 
and made into bracelets, breast-pins, sleeve- 
buttons, studs, watch-guards, and other useful 
and ornamental things. 

Indian Corn. (See Maize.) 

Indian Summer. A term applied in the United 
States to the period of mild weather which nearly 
always conies at the close of October, extending 
sometimes to the middle of November. It is 
rainless and the atmospere is apt to be hazy. In 
Europe a similar season is known as St. Martin’s 
Summer. 

Indigo. [U. indicum , from India.'] A well- 
known and beautiful blue vegetable dye, obtained 
from the leaves of several species of plants which 
grow in the East and West Indies, India, Ceylon, 
Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, etc. Indigo is very 
extensively employed in dyeing and calico-print¬ 
ing. White indigo, discovered by Chevreul, 
results from the action of hydrogen on indigo. 
Indigo is made artificially in great quantities 
from cinnamic acid and isatin , which are derived 
from benzine. 

Influen'za, \n epidemic disease which comes 
suddenly, produces severe catarrh, and is very 
apt to develop into pneumonia or serious affec¬ 
tions of other parts of the body. In France it is 
known as la grippe, which name has become 
common, and many occurrences of it are upon 
record, one of the most persistent of which 

659 




8 4 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


appeared in Europe and the United States in the 
winter of 1889-90, and was still active more than 
ten years later. The disease is believed to be of 
bacterial origin, and is often fatal. 

Induction. An important electrical phenomenon, 
in which a charged conductor causes unlike 
electricity to appear in an insulated conductor 
on the end near it, and like electricity on the 
other end. In the same way a magnet induces 
the opposite magnetic charge in iron, and an 
electric current induces a momentary current in 
the opposite direction in a neighboring wire. In 
practice, the induced current is often used instead 
of the primary current. I11 long telegraph wires 
and ocean cables induction acts to check the 
rapidity of movement of the current. 

Ink. [Fr. encre .] A liquor or substance used for 
writing or printing. Writing ink is made of 
gall-nuts, sulphate of iron, gum, and water. 
Copying ink has more gum than writing ink ; 
while blue ink is made of Prussian blue, oxalic 
acid, and water ; and red ink is got from Brazil 
wood, but now generally from potassium eosin. 
Black printing ink is much thicker than writing 
ink, and is usually made of lamp black or ivory 
black mixed with burnt linseed oil. 

Inlay ' ing. The art of ornamenting flat surfaces 
with pieces of wood, ivory, pearl, precious 
metals, etc., by inserting them into spaces cut 
out of the body of the substance in which they 
are to be inlaid. 

Insectivorous Plants. A name given to various 
plants whose leaves are developed into traps for 
catching insects, upon whose juices the plant 
seems to feed. Well known forms of these are 
the Venus fly-trap, the sundew, and pitcher plants. 
IiFsects. [X. insectus , cut into.] In point of 

number and variety of 
species by far the lar¬ 
gest class of animals. 
The body, made up of 
a number of rings or 
segments, is divided 
into three parts — the 
head, forming one riug; 
the thorax, with three 
divisions ; and the ab¬ 
domen, with eleven 
rings. The head has 
two jointed feelers, 
called antennae , which 
are used in smelling 
and as organs of touch 
and guidance, and 
three pairs o f mouth 
appendages. The first 
pair, called mandibles , 
is used for cutting the 
figure showing the pakts food. Next come the 

a, head: bed, thorax; e abdomen; MClXlllCg , 

ff, antennae or feelers; ggll, and below these the 
wmgs; 11 hh kk legs. second pair of maxillae. 
Insects feed on different kinds of food, some living 
on animal and some on vegetable substances, while 
others suck juices. Hence arises a difference in 
the shape of their mouths—some being formed for 
660 


biting and chewing, some only for sucking, and 
some for both. Three pairs of legs grow on the 
thorax, one pair on each ring; and they have 
usually either two or four wings also on the 
chest. The majority of insects are hatched from 
eggs, and these vary in number according to the 
kind of insect. Some kinds of insects, such as 
the hive-bee, the silk-moth, the cochineal and 
lac-insects, are very useful to man, other kinds, 
such as the locust, the grasshopper, the potato- 
bug, and many flies, are very harmful, destroying 
herbage and crops. 

rodine. [Gk. ion, a violet; and eidos, form.] A 
simple substance obtained from the ashes of sea¬ 
weed ; its vapor is of a rich violet color. Though 
an irritant poison, it is used medicinally in small 
doses. 

IpecacuaiFha. [Peruvian ipi , root; and Cacuanah, 
the district from which it was first obtained.] A 
plant found in the forests of Brazil, the root of 
which is used as an emetic. 

Pron. [AS. iren. ] The most common and most 
important of all metals. Iron possesses proper¬ 
ties so varied and useful as to give it the highest 
rank among the mineral productions of the earth. 
It is very hard and yet malleable ; can bear a 
great strain or be made very brittle ; is inflex¬ 
ible, but from it the most elastic springs can be 
made ; it may be used for the heavy sides of a 
man-of-war, or the slender blade of a surgeon’s 
knife. 

Native-Iron. Of this there are two kinds :—1 
Telluric iron , found in small grains in some 
basaltic rocks, and generally associated with other 
metals. 2. Meteoric iron —that is, masses of nearly 
pure iron which have fallen from outer s.pace 
to the earth in the form of meteors. Some 
of these masses are of great weight, one found 
in 1871 near Disco Bay in Greenland weighing 
nearly 20 tons. 

Iron Ores.—Iron is found chiefly in the earth’s 
crust in combination with oxygen. There are 
several kinds of ores from which_iron is made, 
but the most important are the various oxides, 
the carbonates, and the sulphides. From the two 
former almost all the iron of commerce is 
obtained. Magnetic ore is the richest of all the 
ores, and from it are made the finest iron and the 
best steel. It is found in large masses in Swe¬ 
den, Norway, Russia, and North America, and 
in some parts of England. Some specimens of 
this ore form natural magnets. Magnetic ore 
when pure contains fully 72 per cent, of metallic 
iron. Hematite ore in its pure state contains 
about 70 per cent of iron. This ore is found in 
great abundance in Chili and other parts of South 
America, in Algeria, England, Norway, Sweden, 
and in large beds in Canada, Pennsylvania, Mis¬ 
souri, Michigan, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In 
addition to the ores mentioned there are many 
other kinds, such as brown ore , bog ore or 
limonite , spathic ore , etc. 

Cast-iron, or pig-iron, as it is commonly called, 
is made by smelting or melting iron ore in a 
blast furnace. Iron smelting is necessary to free 
the ore from all foreign ingredients, to reduce 














ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


85 


the iron oxide to metallic iron, and to allow the 
reduced iron to combine with such an amount of 
carbon as to form therewith a fusible compound. 
Cast iron is used for making gas and water pipes, 
lampposts, pillars and fronts for buildings, rail¬ 
ings and many other things. It contains from 3 
to 6 per cent, of carbon, and cannot be ham¬ 
mered, as it is brittle. To make it into wrought 
iron —that is, softer iron which can be hammered 
or rolled into plates—the cast iron is melted in 
another kind of furnace, and stirred up so that 
the air can get to it. In this way the carbon is 
burned out, and it contains only y 2 per cent, of 
carbon. Wrought iron is easily hammered into 
bars, rolled into plates, drawn out into wire, or 
made into steel. Iron plates for steam boilers 
and ships, anchors, chain cables, ploughs, wheel- 
tires, horseshoes, shovels and spades, nails and 
spikes, wire, the iron part of most tools, etc., 
are made from it. Pieces of wrought iron can be 
w r elded or joined into one by hammering them 
together when red hot. (See Steel.) 

Irrigation. The watering of the earth to increase 
its fertility. The word is applied to flooding 
fields directly from streams, and to the digging 
of long canals and ditches to spread the waters of 
a stream over a broad section of land. It was 
practiced in very early times by the Egyptians 
and Babylonians, and is now much in use in 
many parts of the earth. It is being widely 
applied in the Western United States. 

Fsinglass or Fish=glue. [Corrupted from Du. 
huizenblas , the bladder of the sturgeon.] A 
substance consisting chiefly of gelatine, prepared 
from the sounds or air-bladders of certain fresh¬ 
water fishes. The finest is obtained from the 
sturgeon, which is very plentiful in the Caspian 
and Black seas and the rivers flowing into them ; 
but isinglass is also made from the bladders of 
the cod and other fish, and quantities are pro¬ 
duced in Brazil, North America, and the East 
Indies. It is much used in making jellies, ices 
and other kind of desserts, and in clarifying beer. 
It is the chief substance of Russian glue, noted 
for its strength, and used in stiffening linens, 
silks, gauzes, etc. Isinglass dissolved in acetic 
acid is a useful cement for repairing glass, pot¬ 
tery, etc. 

Isothermal. Having equal heat or temperature. 
Isothermal lines are those which pass through 
points of equal annual temperature upon the 
earth’s surface. They are irregular in shape, the 


J 

Jack. A hoisting or lifting device, consisting of a 
screw arrangement by which a heavy weight may 
be lifted with small power. The hydraulic jack is 
the most powerful of lifting machines. In its use 
water is forced through a small hole into a cham¬ 
ber of considerable dimensions. By its aid a 
man may lift 10 tons 1 foot in a minute and a 
half, or 100 tons in 15 minutes. The term jack 
is applied to many other tools used in the arts. 


temperature of a place being not closely gov¬ 
erned by its latitude. Thus in passing from 
western Europe to eastern America the lines may 
differ 10 or 11 degrees in latitude. In crossing 
the United States they reach higher latitudes on 
the Pacific than on the Atlantic coast. 

Fvory. [Fr., from U. ebitr, ivory.] The hard, 
fine-grained substance of a fine white color 
obtained from the tusks and teeth of the ele¬ 
phant. The name is also given to the tusks and 
teeth of certain other animals, as the hippopota¬ 
mus, walrus, narwhal, etc. The tusks of the 
African elephant yield the best ivory, on account 
of their superior density and whiteness. They 
are of all sizes, but the largest weigh from 180 
to 200 lbs. Indian and Ceylon elephants also 
yield much ivory, but the ivory used by Russian 
ivory-workers is that of mammoths found buried 
in the soil of Northern Siberia. Ivory is used in 
the manufacture of knife-handles, billiard balls, 
chess-men, dice, fans, combs, paper-knives, nap¬ 
kin-rings, brooches, organ and pianoforte keys, 
etc. Great taste and skill are often shown in 
working ivory, and some of the carved boxes, 
ornaments, and toys made of it are very beauti¬ 
ful. The Chinese and Japanese are very skilful 
in carving ivory. Ivory obtained from the hip¬ 
popotamus is very white, and not grained like 
that of the elephant, and is used by dentists for 
making artificial teeth. 

Vegetable ivory is the nut of a palm-like tree 
which grows on the plains of Peru, and on the 
banks of many of the rivers of South America. 
The nuts, about the size of hens’ eggs, are ex¬ 
ceedingly hard and white when ripe, and resem¬ 
ble ivory so much that they are used in the manu¬ 
facture of buttons, umbrella handles, and small 
trinkets. 

Fvy. [AS. ifig.~\ An evergreen plant of the genus 
Hedera, which creeps along the ground or climbs 
trees, rocks, walls, etc. Its leaves are very pretty, 
of a dark-green color, smooth and shiny. It is 
found almost throughout the whole of Europe, 
and especially in Great Britain. In North Amer¬ 
ica it does not succeed very well, but on the 
Pacific coast it grows luxuriantly, and it is popu- 

. lar in Virginia and some of the Southern States. 
Various substances are got from the different 
parts of the plant. The stem yields a gum resin 
and the seeds a bitter substance called hederin. 
Poison ivy is a poisonous, climbing plant of the 
Sumach family. It is common on trees, etc. 


Jack'al. This animal belongs to the genus Canis, 
and has a close resemblance to the dog and the 
fox. The common jackal is of a grayish-yellow 
color, about 3 feet in length and 14 inches in 
height, with short ears and small eyes. Jackals 
sleep during the day in holes and burrows, and 
go out at night to hunt in packs, sometimes more 
than a hundred together. They keep up a con¬ 
stant howling, making the night hideous in the 

661 






86 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON■ THINGS 


regions where they abound. Their food consists 
chiefly of carrion and decaying matter, but they 
also enter houses or tents, and are the pests of 
the poultryyard. The common jackal is found 
in Africa, from Barbary southwards to the Cape of 
Good Hope, and in Persia, Syria, and the south¬ 
ern regions of Asia. The striped jackal, the 
jackal-wolf, and the black-backed jackal are dif¬ 
ferent species, all found in Africa. 

Jack / daw. [Jack and daw.'] A bird of the crow 
kind, smaller than the rook and carrion crow, 
in length about 12 inches. Its plumage is of a 
glossy black, and it has a short black bill and 
black legs. Tt is common in the British Islands, 
and is found over nearly all Europe, also in Asia 
and the north of Africa, but not in America. It 
builds its nest in cliffs, ruins, towers, and ele¬ 
vated situations, and in chimneys and in hollow 
trees. Its food consists of worms, snails, and 
insects. Jackdaws lay from five to six eggs of a 
greenish color, covered with small dark-brown 
spots. They are easily domesticated, and soon 
become familiar and imitate the human voice. 

Jack Plane. A Carpenter’s cutting and surface 

smoothing tool, from 12 
to 17 inches in length 
and used to take off the 
roughtest surface of the 
board. 

Jac / onet. A light soft 
muslin, used for dresses 
neckcloths, etc. 

Jade. [Span, ijada, 
flank.] A mineral, called 
also oxstone , of a green¬ 
ish color, compact, and 
with a fatty lustre. It 
was believed to cure pain 
of the side, hence its 
name. Chinese jade is 
wrought into beautiful 
vases and other objects. 

Jag'uar. A large and 
ferocious animal, of the 
cat family, found chiefly 
in South America, and 
often called the American 
tiger. It is found in North 
America as far north as 
the borders of Texas. It 
is larger than the leopard 
and is very strong. Its 
fur is of a brownish- 
yellow color, beautifully marked with dark 
ring-like spots, each ring enclosing several small 
black points. It resembles the leopard in color 
and general appearance, and, like it, can climb 
trees with great ease. The jaguar lives in thick 
forests near large rivers and lakes. Wild horses 
and mules are its favorite prey, and it feeds on 
turtles. South Americans hunt the jaguar in 
various ways, but chiefly with the aid of dogs 
and the lasso. Jaguar skins are very handsome, 
and are largely imported into Europe, and made 
into valuable robes, etc. It will not attack man 
unless impelled by hunger, or self-defense. 

662 



JACK PLANE. 


JaPap or Julep. [So called from Jalapa in 
Mexico.] ( Rose-water .) The root of a plant 
much used in medicine as a purgative. 

JaparPning. The art of covering wood, metal, 
leather, paper, etc., with a thick coating of 
colored varnish. It was first practised by the 
Japanese, hence the name. Tea-trays, tin canis¬ 
ters, cash-boxes, coal-boxes, etc., are japanned 
in iron and tin works in large cities. 

Jas'mine. A genus of long twining shrubs, bear¬ 
ing sweetly-scented flowers. 

Jasper. [Gk. iaspis.] A hard precious stone of 
various colors (usually red or brown), which, 
takes on a high polish, and is used for rings, 
seals, vases, and other ornaments, and also for 
the decoration of costly buildings. It is one of 
the varieties of quartz, and is found in veins and 
embedded masses in many rocks. 

JaurPdice. [Fr. jaunisse.] A disorder of the 
liver, causing bile to mix with the blood, when 
the skin becomes yellow. 

Jay. ( Garrulus .) A genus of short-winged birds 
of the Crow family. The jay frightens small 
birds with its cry, and robs nests of their eggs. 
The European jay is of a yellowish-brown color, 
and resembles an ordinary pigeon in size. Its 
food consists chiefly of berries, seeds, fruits, and 
nuts, but it is also fond of worms, insects, and 
j?oung mice. The American jay, or blue jay, has 
a far more brilliant plumage than the European 
jay, with a crest of feathers. The Florida jay is 
blue. The Canada jay is plain colored, and with¬ 
out a crest. 

Jelly. A translucent juice which thickens when 
cold into a soft and trembling mass. The juice' 
of currants and some other fruits thickens to 
jelly after boiling with sugar. A jelly is also 
made from Iceland moss, and there are various 
jellies made from animal substances,—as calves’ 
foot jelly. 

JePly=fish. {Medusce .) Soft-bodied ocean animals, 
which form a disk of an umbreltar'shape, with a 
mouth in its centre, opening downwards, and 
long tentacles surrounding the mouth or depend¬ 
ing from the margin of the disk. They have 
stinging powers, and move by opening and 
shutting the umbrella disk. Their flesh resembles 
jelly, some of them being small and transparent, 
others quite large. 

Jerboa or Jumping Mouse. {Dipus.) A genus 
of rodent mammals allied to the mouse, having 
very short fore legs and remarkably long hind 
ones, and noted for their power of jumping by 
the aid of a long muscular tail. The average 
length of the body is about 8 inches, the tail 
often measuring 10 inches. They are common 
in Asia and Northern Africa, and a few species 
are found in Russia and North America. They 
live in burrows, are nocturnal in their habits, and 
hibernate. 

Jerusalem =ar / tichoke. [ Jerusalem , corruption 
of Ital. girasole, or sunflower.] A plant whose 
root is sometimes used for food. 

Jet. [From Gagas, a town in Asia Minor.] A 
hard black mineral, easily cut and carved, and 
capable of receiving a very beautiful polish. Jet 




































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


87 


appears to be a kind of bituminous coal, but 
much harder and smoother than that used for 
burning. Much of it is found near Whitby, 
Yorkshire, where it has been worked for cen¬ 
turies. It is made into buttons, mantel orna¬ 
ments, necklaces, earrings, brooches, bracelets, 
and other trinkets. Jet is also found in France 
and Spain, and in these countries it is made into 
rosary beads, crosses, etc. Sometimes called 
black amber. 

Jet/ty. A landing-place carried out so far that ! 
vessels may discharge their cargoes at all states 
of the tide ; a breakwater for the protection of 
river or harbor mouths. Jetties are built out in 
pairs into the ocean so as to confine the outflow 



JERBOA OR JUMPING MICE. 


of streams and prevent the formation of bars. 
The Mississippi jetties, begun in 1875, deepened 
the South Pass of that stream from 14 ]/ z to 23 
feet, the confined water sweeping the mud from 
the bottom. 

Jew / el. [Fr.] Any ornament cf precious stone, 
metal, or other valuable material. A diamond or 
other stone in a watch on which the pivot turns. 

Jew’s=harp. A simple instrument of music, made 
of metal, and shaped like a harp. When played 
it is placed between the teeth, and by means of a 
little spring, which is made to vibrate by being 
struck with the finger, it produces a sound which 
is modulated by the breath of the performer into 
soft melody. Also called Jew's-trump. 

Johan nisberger. The finest kind of Rhine wine, 
made at Johannisberg monastery. 

John=dory. [John, and Fr. dorer, to gild.] A 
flat sea-fish of a golden-yellow color, with a 


small round spot on each side ; hence called St. 
Peter's Fish. 

Joists. [Fr., to lie,] Pieces of timber, laid hori¬ 
zontally in parallel rows, resting on walls and 
girders, and sometimes on both, and to which the 
boards of a floor or the laths of a ceiling are 
nailed. 

Jol / ly = boat. A small boat belonging to a ship. 

Jour / nal. [Fr. journal .] A diary ; a book con¬ 
taining an account of daily transactions and 
events ; a business book in which every particular 
article or charge is entered ; a paper published 
daily or at regular times. 

JtFjube. The name of a small tree or shrub and 
of its fruit, sometimes called lotus. The tree is 
a native of Syria, and is now cultivated in many 
parts of Asia and in Europe, chiefly for its fruit, 
which is dried as a sweetmeat. The common 
jujube paste is really a mixture of gum arabic 
and sugar, slightly colored. 

JiFniper. [R. juniperus.'] A hardy evergreen 
tree or shrub, with dark-purple berries, which 
have a strong and peculiar flavor, and are much 
used for flavoring gin. The common juniper is 
found in Europe, the north of Asia, and the 
northern parts of North America. It attains no 
great height, being in general only a shrub from 
2 to 6 feet high, but in favorable circumstances it 
becomes a tree from 15 to 30 feet in height. The 
fruit takes two years to ripen. Virginian 
juniper , or the red cedar of North America, 
attains a height of from 30 to 50 feet; and the 
w T ood, which is of a beautiful red color, is highly 
prized by turners, and is also largely used for 
cigar-boxes and lead pencils. 

JiFpiter. The largest planet of the solar system. 
It is about 88,000 miles diameter, eleven times 
that of the earth, and rotates in less than 10 
hours, its surface at the equator moving 28 times 
as fast as the earth’s surface. Its distance from 
the sun is 485,000,000 miles. 

Jute. The fibre of the inner bark of two plants, 
which are very extensively cultivated in India, 
especially in Bengal. Both plants are annuals, 
in height from 10 to 14 feet, with yellow flowers 
and smooth leaves. The stem is erect, smooth, 
and cylindrical, and the inner bark is separated 
from it by steeping in water. The fibre is of 
a yellow or buff color, comparatively strong, 
easily spun, and possessing a shining surface. 
It is largely used for making coarse cloth for 
bagging and sacks, and in the manufacture of 
carpets, tarpaulin, backings for floorcloth, manilla 
paper, etc. Jute has been woven into various 
fabrics in Bengal from a remote period, and there 
are now many jute factories in India. (See 
Gunny.) 


K 


Kaleidoscope. [Gk. kalos , beautiful; eidos, a 
form; and skopein, to see.] An optical instru¬ 
ment invented by Sir David Brewster in 1817. It 
consists of a tube containing two glass mirrors, 
making an angle of 6o° with one another, and 


extending the whole length of the tube. One 
end of the tube has a small opening to serve as 
an eye-glass, and the other end has two glasses, 
one of ground and the other of clear glass, with 
little pieces of colored glass lying loosely between 

663 













88 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


them. These colored bits of glass are reflected 
in the looking-glasses, and regular figures of the 
most beautiful form, which change whenever 
the instrument is shaken, are seen on looking 
through the instrument. It forms a cheap and 
pretty toy, and is also used, in a more expensive 
form, by pattern-drawers and others,, who get 
from it an endless variety of designs. 

Karbgaroo. An animal belonging to the Mar¬ 
supial order of mammals, and found only in 
Australia, New Guinea, and the neighboring 
islands. Its distinguishing features are very 
short fore legs, which are not used for walking, 
remarkably long hind legs, by means of which 
it makes long leaps, and a pouch in which it 
carries its young for a certain period after birth. 
The kangaroo has a long, thick, and strong tail, 
and when resting and feeding it supports itself 
on its hind legs and its tail. Kangaroos live 
on vegetable food, mainly grass, which they 
consume in large quantities, two kangaroos 
eating as much grass as three sheep. They are 
hunted in various ways, chiefly by dogs, upon 
which they turn and strike heavy blows with 
their tails. The skin is much prized, and makes 
a valuable leather for shoes and gloves ; and the 
flesh is largely eaten by the natives in Australia, 
and is said to be nutritious and to resemble 
mutton. 

Ka'olin. A pure white clay, resulting from the 
decomposition of felspar in granite rocks. The 
finer kinds of porcelain are made from it. 

Kelp. A dark-gray powder or ash, got by burning 
seaweed, used chiefly in the manufacture of 
iodine, and formerly of glass. 

Kes / trel. A small bird of the genus Falco or hawk 
kind, like the sparrow-hawk. 

KidTieys. Two peculiarly shaped glands which 

secrete the 
urine from the 
blood and send 
it into the blad¬ 
der. In the hu¬ 
man body they 
are situated one 
on each side of 
the abdominal 
cavity, and are 
spoken of as the 
right and left 
kidney. Their 
average length 
is fully 4 inches, 
and they weigh 
from 4 to 6 
ounces each. 

Kindergar¬ 
ten. [Ger. kind¬ 
er, chi ldren ; 
and gar ten, a 
garden.] A 
school or train- 
i n g-p lace for 

young children, in which instruction is given by 
means of games and other amusements ; so called 
because first carried on in rooms opening on a 
664 


garden. The system was devised by Friedrich 
Froebel in 1826. Since that time it has been 
gradually developing and extending. 

Kine'toscope. An apparatus for taking and after¬ 
wards exhibiting a rapid series of photographs 
of moving scenes. By its use life-like pictures 
can be displayed. Various names have been 
given to modifications of this instrument, as 
Biograph, Vitascope, Mutoscope, etc., all based 
on the one principle. 

King / bird. Also known as the Tyrant Fly-catcher 
and Bel-martin. It is found only in America 
east of the Rocky Mountains, and during the 
nesting season is very fierce. It will attack the 
largest bird that comes too near its nest, even 
eagles and hawks being driven off by this little 
tyrant. It will dart upward, alight on the back 
of its enemy, and with its sharp beak make him 
suffer for his temerity. 

KingTisher. A genus of perching birds noted for 
their brilliant plumage. The kingfisher is 
usually found alone, perched on the bough of a 
tree on the banks of rivers. Here it will sit for 
hours watching for fish. It dives the moment it 
perceives its prey, carries the fish to the perch, 
kills it, and swallows it whole. The kingfisher 
makes its nest of fish-bones, ejected by the bird 
itself. It is found all over the world. The wood 
kingfisher of Africa feeds largely upon insects, 
snails, and fishes. The belted kingfisher of North 
America is slate-blue, with white breast, and 
feeds on fishes. The giant kingfisher of Austra¬ 
lia feeds on lizards and insects. 

Kite. [AS. cytai] The name of a very active 
bird of the genus Falco or hawk. Its bill is short 
and strong, its wings are long, powerful, and 
pointed, and its tail is forked. The kite spends 
the greater part of the day on the wing, some¬ 
times flying so high that it can scarcely be seen, 
and coming down at night to roost on tall trees. 
When in the air it lives mbstly on insects, but 
its food consists also of moles, mice and carrion. 
The common kite and the black kite are found 
throughout Europe ; the swallow-tailed kite is 
common in America. The carrion-feeding 
habits of this bird are seen to perfection in the 
birds found in Asia, and particularly in India. 

Kite. A light frame of wood and paper constructed 
for flying in the air, chiefly for amusement. 
Kites get their name from the kind of hawk called 
kite, which has just been described, and which 
is often seen in the air, almost as still as a paper 
kite, gliding along without moving its wings. 
Kites are made of many different shapes, but the 
most common are the cross-kite, the house-kite, 
and the bow-kite. The natives of India, the 
Chinese, and the Japanese are very skilful in 
making kites, and often make them to represent 
animals, ships, castles, trees, and flowers. Kites 
are used to carry lines across deep chasms or 
over the tops of steeples and high chimney- 
stacks, and are now emplo3^ed in the study of the 
weather, being sent ver)^ high into the air. 

Kit/tiwake. A bird of the gull kind. 

Knife. [AS. cnif.~] Primitive men used shells, 
flints, and sharp-edged stones for knives. These 







V 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


were followed by bronze knives made of copper 
and tin ; but knives made of iron and steel 
gradually took tlieir place, as they were found to 
be more lasting and stronger. The best knives 
are now made of steel. In the manufacture of 
table-knives a bar of shear-steel is heated white 
hot and then hammered into 
shape on an anvil. This is called 
forging the blade. Penknife 
and razor-blades are made of 
cast steel. After forging, the 
blades are stamped with the 
maker’s name, and then tem¬ 
pered by heating them red hot 
and cooling them quickly by 
dipping them in water. They 
are then ground and polished 
and fitted with handles. 

Knight. A title of honor, 
originally adopted during the 
feudal system, and given to 
soldiers of courage and experience. The knight 
took the title of Sir before his name. Knight¬ 
hood was conferred of old by laying the blade 
of a sword on the shoulder of the one to be 
honored and repeating a formula declaring him 
' a knight. There were several Orders of Knight¬ 
hood. Knighthood is now a civil, not a mili¬ 
tary, rank. 

Knot. In nautical language a division of the log¬ 
line serving to measure the rate of a vessel’s 
motion. The log-line is divided by knots into 



CROSSED SLIP-KNOTS, 


sections, and the number of sections which run 
off in half a minute show the number of geo¬ 
graphical miles or knots per hour at which the 
vessel is going. A geographical mile or knot is 
6,086 feet, while an English statute mile is 5,280 
feet. (See Log.) 

Knots. There is an almost endless variety of 
knots, most of them in use on board ship, though 
different occupations using ropes, cordage, etc. 

have special kinds 
of knots. Knots 
used by sailors dif¬ 
fer in form, size, 
and. name accord¬ 
ing to their varied 
uses; as the dia¬ 
mond-knot, over¬ 
hand-knot, bowline-knot, bnoyrope-knot, reef- 
knot, shroud-knot, stopper-knot, etc. 

Ko'dak. A form of photographic camera adapted 
to take instantaneous negatives by the “snap¬ 
shot” process. It is made in the form of a 
small box, with a lens and shutter on one side, 
and a reflector on top to aid the operator. The 
negative is taken by pressing a button, which 
opens the shutter for an instant. (See Camera.) 

Kou'miss. A fermented drink made from mare’s 
milk originally, though it may be made from the 
milk of any animal. The article usually sold 
under this name is made from cow’s milk, yeast 
being used to cause it to ferment. It is esteemed 
a nutritious beverage and an aid to digestion. 




La'bel. A narrow slip of silk, paper, metal, or 
parchment, containing a name or title, and 
affixed to anything, to tell what or whose the 
thing is. 

Laburnum. A small tree, a native of the Alps, 
much planted in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds 
on account of its glossy leaves and clusters of 
beautiful yellow flowers. The laburnum is a 
very hardy tree, and though of rapid growth its 
wood is hard, fine-grained, and very durable, and 
is highly valued by cabinetmakers and turners. 
It is used also for wedges, pulleys, pegs, bows, 
handles of knives, and other instruments. The 
seeds are poisonous. 

Labyrinth. A building or ground space full of 
winding passages, which are very difficult to 
traverse. There were three famous ones in 
ancient history. One at Arsinoe in Egypt had 
3,000, apartments, half of them underground. 
There was a similar one in femnos, and a 
smaller but famous one in Crete—though this is 
traditional and its existence doubtful. 

Lac. A resinous substance found on certain trees 
in different pa-rts of the East Indies. It is pro¬ 
duced by punctures made by a very small insect 
called Coccus lacca. These insects live on the 
sap of the trees, and soon become fixed to the 
branches by the juices which ooze out. The 
twigs containing the deposit are broken off, and 
form the stick-lac of commerce. Seed-lac is the 


deposit broken off from the twigs, while shell-lac 
is obtained by placing the twigs in hot water, 
which melts off the gum. It is then purified by 
straining through cotton bags, and dried on strips 
of wood. The water in which the lac has been 
melted is colored red by the bodies of the insects, 
and after the melted lac is taken out this water 
is strained and evaporated, and the sediment is 
cut up into small cakes and sold as lac-dye. Eac- 
dye is largely used in dyeing silk and wool. 
Shell-lac is used in the manufacture of hats to 
stiffen the calico frame, and in makiL g sealing- 
wax and different kinds of varnish—“Eac” is 
the same as the numeral lakh—a hundred thou¬ 
sand—and is indicative of the countless hosts of 
the lac insects. 

Lace. [Fr., from E. laqueus , a noose.] A fabric 
formed of threads of cotton, wool, flax, silk, 
silver, or gold, used chiefly for ornamenting 
dresses. Eace is made either by hand or machine. 
To that made by the hand the term real lace is 
sometimes applied, and also pillow or bobbin 
lace, from being woven upon a pillow or cushion 
by means of bobbins. Much of the lace now 
used is made by machinery, the machines at 
present in use being modifications and improve¬ 
ments on the bobbinet machine invented by Mr. 
Heathcote of Tiverton in 1809. Nottingham in 
England, and Alen^on, Brussels, Mechlin, and 
Valenciennes are centres of this industry. 

665 














90 




v 

V 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Lac'quer. [From lac, a gum or resin.] A var¬ 
nish composed of shell-lac dissolved in alcohol 
with gamboge, and used for coating metals, 
chiefly polished brass, to which it gives a golden 
bronze color, preserves their lustre, and secures 
them against rust. The name is also given to a 
varnish made by the Japanese and Chinese from 

the juice of the 
1 laquer or varnish 
tree found in 
these countries. 
L a c q uer-ware 
consist of vari¬ 
ous articles,such 
as boxes, trays, 
cabinets, etc., 
many of them 
decorated by in¬ 
laying, gilding 
with gold or sil¬ 
ver, designs in 
color,or carving. 
The Japanese 
work, and give the 



LACE. 


light by 
lighted. 


and Chinese excel in this 
articles a beautiful finish. 

Lacrosse 7 . [Fr. la crosse, the hooked stick.] A 
game of ball, first played by the North American 
Indians, now common in Canada. 

Lady=foird. ( Coccinella .) A small kind of beetle 
of a brilliant red, orange, or yellow color, with 
black spots, or sometimes black with white, yel¬ 
low, or red spots. It lays its eggs in little collec¬ 
tions under the leaves of plants, among the plant- 
lice, on which both the larvae and the full-grown 
insects feed. 

Lamp. [Gk. lampas.~\ A vessel used for giving 
means of a wick dipped in oil and 
In ancient times lamps were simply 
flat vessels made of earthenware or stone. Speci¬ 
mens of these have been found in the ruins of 
Pompeii and Herculaneum. In later times they 
appear to have been formed from various metals, 
more particularly bronze. Lamps are now made 
to give an excellent light, and are also used for 
'heating and cooking. Rushes, animal fats, and 

fish oils were first used for 
burning in lamps. These 
were followed by vegetable 
oils, which in turn have 
been largely superseded by 
mineral oils, such as par- 
raffin, petroleum, kerosene, 
crystal and mineral sperm. 
The safety-lamp invented 
by Sir Humphrey Davy in 
1815 is of great use in min¬ 
ing. It is covered with wire 
gauze, and gives the miner 
sufficient light without the 
danger of setting fire to in- 
daw lamp. fl amma bi e g ases . Arc lamps 

and incandescent lamps are devices for producing 
light by electricity. 

Lamp'black. A fine soot formed by burning resin, 
petroleum, pitch, tar, and oils and fats in close 
iron vessels. During combustion the dense smoke 
666 




- 

73 

•Vyl 




CLANNY LAMP. 


passes into a chamber covered with a coarse 
woolen cloth, and a thick coating of lampblack 
is soon formed, which is shaken off and put up 
in barrels for sale. Lampblack is used by artists 
and painters, and is the chief ingredient in China 
ink and printing ink. 

LanLprey or Rock=sucker. A species of fish 
somewhat resembling the eel in form. Its body 
is destitute of the paired fins found in most other 
fishes, is without scales, and covered with a 
glutinous mucus. The mouth is circular in form, 
and by it and the tongue, which acts like a 
piston, the animal attaches itself firmly to fixed 
objects. Formerly the lamprey was highly es¬ 
teemed as an article of food, and even of luxury, 
but is not so commonly used now. 

Lance. [L- lancea.'] A weapon much used by 
the ancients, consisting of a long shaft witn a 
sharp point. It was an important weapon of war 
in the Middle Ages, and though now differing in 
form is still used by European cavalry. Lances 
are now made of ash or beech wood, about 12 
feet long, with a steel point 8 or 10 inches long. 
Near the point is a small flag, intended to frighten 
the horses of the enemy. When not in use the 
lance is carried in a leathern shoe by the right 
stirrup, a leathern thong on the right arm keep¬ 
ing it in position. In use it is carried under the 
right arm. 

Lancewood. The wood of a tree found in the 
West Indies, chiefly in Jamaica, of which it is a 





ANCIENT LAMPS. 


native, and possessing great toughness and elas¬ 
ticity. It is used by coach-builders for shafts and 
carriage poles. 




















































































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


9i 


Land=crab. Land-dwelling crabs, of which there 
are many species. The Black or Mountain Crab 
of the West Indies lives from one to three miles 
from the sea, to which it travels, in immense 
numbers, in April or May, for the purpose of lay¬ 
ing its eggs ; It is chiefly active at night. 

Lapis Laz'uli. [L , azure stone.] The name of a 
mineral of a rich blue color, consistii g chiefly 
of silica and alumina, with sulphates of soda, and 
iron in spots or veins. It is found in Persia, 
China, Chili, and Siberia, and is used for orna¬ 
mental purposes, especially for inlaid work. In 
the marble palace built by the Empress Catherine 
at St. Petersburg there are entire apartments in¬ 
laid with lapis laz ili. It was much esteemed by 
the ancients, who used it for engraving and for 
vases. 

Lap'wing. A bird of the Plover family, with long, 
broad wings, which from their regular, slow 
flapping have gained for it the title Lapwing. It 
is also known by the name Peezvit , from its 
peculiar cry. Lapwings are common in Britain 
all the year, and are also widely distributed in 
Europe and Asia. They frequent marshy pas¬ 
tures, feed on worms, slugs, and insects, and are 
hunted for their flesh. Tlieir eggs, which are 
known as plovers’ eggs, are highly esteemed, and 
fetch good prices in the British markets. 

Larch. [L. larix.] A cone-bearing tree, common 
in Europe, Asia, and North America. The Euro¬ 
pean larch attains a height of from 60 to ico feet, 
with a trunk of from 3 to 4 feet in diameter. The 
larch grows rapidly, and is considered to be fit 
for every useful purpose in forty years’ growth. 
The wood is compact and strong, of a reddish or 
brown tinge, and is used for railway sleepers, 
hop-poles, scaffold-poles, and for ship-building. 
The bark is used for tanning leather. The Ameri¬ 
can larch, or hackmatack, or tamarack, as it is 
sometimes called, is a slender tree, but its wood 
is heavy and cross-grained, and highly valued for 
ship-building and for railway ties. 

Lard. [Fr. lard.'] The fat of the hog after being 
separated from the flesh and melted. It is largely 
used for culinary purposes. Lard consists chiefly 

of stearin, 
which is a solid 
and olein, 
which is a liquid 
fat. The former 
is used in can¬ 
dlemaking, and 
the latter as a 
valuable lubri- 
c a 11 t for ma¬ 
chinery. 

Lark. [AS. 
la fere or lave¬ 
rock.] A well- 
known bird of 
the family Al- 
auda. The best known species is the skylark, 
a familiar songster, remarkable as one of the very 
few birds which sing freely while on the wing. It 
begins to sing when it rises from the ground, and 
though its notes are feeble and interrupted at first, 



they swell out to their full tone as the songster as¬ 
cends, and may be heard long after the bird has 
passed from the range of vision. The larks may 
be considered as especially birds of the fields and 
meadows, the nest being made of dry grass, in a 
hollow in the ground. 

Larynx. [Gk. larynx.] The upper part of the 
windpipe or trachea forming the organ of voice. 
It is situated between the windpipe and the base 
of the tongue, at the upper and front part of the 
neck, and opens above into the throat ( q . v.), 
and below into the windpipe. The skeleton of 
the larynx is composed of five principal car¬ 
tilages, and these are connected by ligaments 
known as vocal cords, the movements of the 
organ being regulated by two sets of muscles. 

Las so. [Span, lazo.] A rope or long thong of 
leather with a running noose, used for catching 
horses, cattle, etc. 

Lathe. A machine by which wood, ivory, metals, 
and other materials are turned and cut as they 
revolve by a tool held in the hand or fixed in a 
slide-rest. All the rounded parts of furniture, 
such as legs of tables, chairs, and stools, the 
balusters of staircases, tool handles, round rulers, 
etc., are made on the lathe. Billiard balls and 
chess-men, and all the round parts of engines and 
other machines, are made on various kinds of 
lathes. Articles of irregular form, such as the 
stocks of guns and pistols, and hollow things, 
such as wooden bowls and dishes, bread platters 
and boxes, are also made on the turning-lathe. 

Laths. The name given to thin, narrow strips of 
wood, rarely longer than four feet, used for nail¬ 
ing to the uprights of partition walls, and to the 
rafters of ceilings. They are placed slightly 
apart to receive the plaster, which, by being 
pressed into the spaces, is held firmly when it 
dries. Laths are now mostly sawn by machinery 
from. Baltic fir or Canadian deal. 

Latitude. Distance from the equator north or 
south towards the poles. Lines of latitude are 
imaginary lines which surround the earth, 
parallel to the equator, diminishing in length 
until they reach the poles, where they vanish. 

Lat/tice. [Fr. lattis, lath-work.] Any work made 
by crossing laths, rods, or bars of wood or iron, 
and forming open squares like network ; a 
window made in this way. 

LaiCrel. [L- laurus.] The name given to a 
genus of plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, 
whose leaves and fruit are bitter, astringent, and 
aromatic, and were formerly much used in medi¬ 
cine. Laurel or bay leaves are now used for 
flavoring in cookery. The laurel or sweet bay 
is a small evergreen tree, found in the south of 
Europe and north of Africa. It has beautiful 
glossy leaves, and bears black berries about the 
size of wild cherries. This laurel is celebrated 
by poets, and used to decorate temples and the 
brows of victors. The victors in the Pythian 
games were crowned with the laurels of Apollo, 
and thus the laurel became the symbol of triumph 
in Greece and then in Rome. The American 
laurel is found almost all over the United States, 

667 










92 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


growing chiefly on rocky hillsides. Its wood is 
hard and fine-grained, and is used by turners for 
making chisel handles. 

La' va. [It. laua .] The name given to the melted 
matter which bursts or is thrown from the mouth 
of a volcano. It flows like melted glass or iron 
down the sides of the mountain, but speedily 
cools and hardens into a porous mass. Ancient 
lavas form extensive rock strata in some locali¬ 
ties, as in the western United States. 

Lav'ender. ( Lavandula .) A delightfully fragrant 
plant, much used in making perfumes. The 
leaves and flowers of lavender are said to have 
been used by the ancients to perfume their baths ; 
hence the name Lavandula may be derived from 
lavare , to wash. The common lavender grows 
wild on stony mountains and hills in the south 
of Europe, and is largely cultivated in gardens in 
Surrey in England and near Philadelphia. The 
flowers of the lavender are often put into ward¬ 
robes to keep away moths. Oil of lavender , 
largely used in medicine, is made by distilling 
the flowers with water ; and Lave?ider water, one 
of the most popular of all perfumes, is obtained 
by dissolving oil of lavender with smaller qnan¬ 
tilies of spirit and rose-water. 

Lawn Tennis. A favorite ball game, played on a 
smooth surface divided by a net. The ball is 
sent by use of a racket, effort being made to 
return it over the net as often as possible. 

Lead. [AS. Iced.'] A well-known metal of a 
bluish-white color, very heavy, easily melted and 
cut, and which may be hammered or rolled out 
into sheets and drawn into wire. It has been 
used from very early times, and articles made of 
it by the ancient Romans—such as water-pipes, 
water-tanks, weights, rings, etc.—have been 
found. Lead is soft, highly malleable, and a 
poor conductor of heat or electricity. It is 
largely used for water-pipes and cisterns, and for 
covering the roofs and gutters of houses. Lead 
is found in a large number of minerals, though 
often in very small quantities. Most of the lead 
now in use is obtained from the ore called galena 
or sulphide of lead. This ore is found in many 
parts of the world, but the purest veins are got 
in Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and the United 
States. The process of smelting the galena ore 
to get the pure lead differs from that of smelting 
iron ore, and is done in an entirely different kind 
of furnace. Sheet lead is made by rolling slabs 
of lead between heavy iron rollers until they are 
thin. Thick sheets are used for lining tanks and 
water cisterns, and for covering roofs, and thin 
sheets for wrapping up snuff, lining tea-chests, 
etc. Lead is used in alloy with other metals— 
forming, when mixed with arsenic, the alloy from 
which shot is made ; with tin, pewter and solder ; 
and with antimony, type-metal. Lead and its 
compounds are poisonous. 

Leaf. A flat, expanded organ of a plant, varying 
in shape, and situated usually at the extremity of 
the twigs. It is employed in elaborating the 
plant food. The crude sap enters the leaf, where 
668 


it receives carbon from the carbonic acid of the 
air. This changes the character of the sap and 
adapts it to serve as plant food. 

League. [L- leuca, a Gallic mile.] A measure of 
distance of ancient origin. The Roman league 
was equal to 1,500 paces, each of 5 feet. The 
league is used as a nautical measure, and signi¬ 
fies the i-2oth part of a degree—3 geographical 
miles, or 3.45 English statute miles. The land- 
league is approximately 3 statute miles. Its 
length varies in different countries. 

Leather. [AS. let her.] The hides or skins of 

animals dressed and prepared for use by tanning 
and otherwise. The most important leather¬ 
making hides are those of oxen, but various 
kinds of leather are made from buffalo and horse 
hides, from the skins of sheep, goats, kids, hogs, 
seals, walruses, rhinoceroses, elephants, ante¬ 
lopes, porpoises, kangaro< s, alligators, and certain 
snakes and sharks. The process of tanning 
varies according to the materials employed, and 
the nature and thickness of the hides and skins. 
In this process tan made from oak or hemlock 
bark, or other woods containing the astringent 
substance called tannin , is used. The skins, after 
being • cleaned of hair and flesh and otherwise 
prepared, are soaked in a solution of tan-bark 
and water, remaining until they are thoroughly 
impregnated with tannin. This has a preserva¬ 
tive action and converts the hides into leather. 

Dressed leather. After leather has been tanned, 

the currier and leather- 
dresser fit it for the many 
uses to which dressed 
leather is applied by a 
varied series of finishing 
operations. The surface 
of the leather is smoothed, 
and its .thickness equal¬ 
ized. It is made soft, 
flexible, and water-proof; 
blackened, enamelled, or 
dyed. 

Russia leather is tanned 
with birch-bark, which 
gives it a peculiar odor, 
and prevents moths and 
other insects from injur¬ 
ing books bound with it. 

Morocco leather is so 
called because it was first 
brought from Morocco. 
It was originally made 
from goat-skins tanned 
with sumach, but now 
calf-skins and sheep¬ 
skins are used. Morocco 
leather is now made in 
France and in the United 
States, and is largely used for covering chairs 
and sofas, for lining coaches, for book-binding, 
and for making pocket-books. 

The finest gloves and ladies’ shoes are made 
of kid leather. Sheep-skin is largely used for 
book-binding, hog-skin for covering saddles, 
horse-hide for harness, collars, etc., and cow-hide 





























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


93 


for boots and shoes. A fine leather is made from 
seal skin, and the skins of alligators are some¬ 
times tanned for boots and shoes. 

Leech. [AS. lceccand\ A worm-like animal 
possessing one or two sucking discs. It is found 
in fresh and salt water, and sometimes on land. 
The medicinal leech is from 2 to 3 inches in 
length, with a minutely-ringed body, composed 
of 102 skin rings, and has a sucker moved by 
strong muscles. This species of leech is largely 
used in abstracting blood from the body" for 
medical purposes. 

Leek. [AS. leac.~\ The Allium porrum , a plant 
allied to the onion and used in soup. 

Le'gion. The name given to a division of the 
Roman army, which corresponded to a brigade 
in modern armies. The legion—3,000 and after¬ 
wards 6,000 strong—was divided into centuries 
or companies of 100 men each. The word as 
now used indicates a great number. 

LerrLming. A small animal of the rat family, found 
in Scandinavia and Finland. It is a vegetable 
feeder, and is remarkable for its occasional 
migrations, in which bands of immense multi¬ 
tudes pass from the mountains to the sea. Great 
numbers are destroyed by carnivorous birds and 
animals and thousands are drowned, few living 
to return. 

Lem / on. The name of a tree (Citrus limonum ) 
and its fruit; a native of Southern Asia, but now 
cultivated in the south of Europe, especially in 
Sicily, in the West Indies, and in California and 
Florida. It forms a straggling bush, and is more 
delicate than the orange. There are many 
varieties of the lemon, but the most common are 
the common or Genoa lemon, the thin-skinned 
lemon, the sweet lemon, and the citron lemon. 
The chief products of the lemon are the juice 
and the oil. The juice has a peculiar and agree¬ 
able flavor, due to citric acid, and is much used 
in the well-known refreshing drink called lemon¬ 
ade. It is also very useful in the prevention and 
cure of scurvy. The rind of the lemon is used 
by cooks and confectioners for flavoring. The 
oil of lemons is extracted from the outside part 
of the peel either by pressure or by distillation, 
and is much used in medicine and in perfumery. 

Le / mur. A family of arboreal animals bearing 
some resemblance to the monkeys in their mode 
of progression and their opposable thumbs and 
great toes. They are much less active and intelli¬ 
gent than the monkeys. They are chiefly natives 
of Madagascar. 

Lens. [E. lens , a lentil seed, which is much like 
the shape of a convex lens.] A piece of glass or 
other transparent substance, which may be 
spherical on both sides, or one side may be 
spherical and the other a plane surface. There 
are many forms of lenses, their purpose being 
to refract the rays of light, causing them to 
converge to a point, to diverge, etc. Lenses are 
usually made of flat pieces of glass, and the 
greatest care is needed in grinding and polishing 
them, as the least unevenness in the surface 
would spoil them. They have many uses, but 
the most common is that of making eye-glasses 


and spectacles—convex lenses being used for far¬ 
sighted and concave lenses for near-sighted 
persons. Lenses of various kinds are used in 
making opera-glasses, microscopes, stereoscopes, 
telescopes, and other instruments. 

Lentil. [Fr. lentille.~\ An annual plant not un¬ 
like the bean, a native of the countries border¬ 
ing on the Mediterranean, and cultivated from 
the earliest times. It is now grown in many 
parts of Europe and Asia, the straw being used 
as fodder for sheep and cattle. The flour of 
lentils is made into lentil soup, w'hich is consid¬ 
ered highly nutritious. 

Leopard. [L. leo, and pardus .] A rapacious 
quadruped of the genus Felis or Cat group, 
found chiefly in Africa, though not uncommon 
in some parts of Asia. In general appearance 
it resembles the tiger, though not nearly so large. 
Its head, neck, back, and limbs are covered with 
black spots on a fur of a yellow color, whilst its 
sides are marked by at least ten ranges of black 
spots of a larger size. The leopard is very active, 
and can leap with the greatest ease, or ascend 
trees in pursuit of prey. It lives chiefly in 
thick forests, and its prey consists of deer, ante¬ 
lope, monkeys, and smaller animals, but it will 
sometimes visit farms and villages and feed on 
pigs, poultry, goats, sheep, or dogs. The leo¬ 
pard seems to dread and flee from man, and will 
only attack him when closely pursued or brought 
to bay. Leopards are captured by means of pit- 
falls covered with branches of trees, on which 
pieces of meat are placed as bait. They are 
chiefly valued for their skins. 

Lep'rosy. A so far incurable skin disease, in 
which scaly patches, circular in form, appear on 
the skin and gradually spread. Its progress is 
very slow and tho^e attacked by it may live for 
years. It is contagious and was very serious in 
ancient times and in the Middle Ages, the only 
treatment being to keep the lepers separate. It 
is now rarely seen in civilized countries. Of 
recent years it has been severe in the Hawaiian 
Islands, where the lepers are all sent to a settle¬ 
ment on the island of Molokai. 

Let/tuce. [Fr. from L. lactuca , which is from lac , 
milk, the plant having a milky juice.] An annual 
plant, supposed to be a native of the East Indies ; 
cultivated from remote antiquity, and now grown 
all over the world where the climate admits of it. 
The two principal kinds are the coss lettuce, with 
oblong upright leaves, and the cabbage lettuce, 
with rounded leaves and a head like a cabbage ; 
and of these two kinds there are many varieties. 
The leaves of lettuce are used as a salad, and 
though they do not contain much nourishment, 
they are easily digested and gently laxative. 
Lettuce-opium is made from the juice of the 
plant, and is used medicinally to allay pain and 
induce sleep. 

Lev / el. An instrument by which to find or draw 
a horizontal line in setting buildings. The spirit- 
level has a bubble of air on the surface of spirits 
of wflne enclosed in a glass tube. In w r ater-levels 
water is used instead of mercury or spirits of 
wine. 


669 






94 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


Le / ver. [Fr. levier.] One of the mechanical 
powers. It consists of a bar of wood or metal, 
supported by and movable 
at s o m e point of its length 
round a prop, called the 
fulcrum , while at the other 
points are placed the weight or 
resistance to be overcome and 
the power or force which over¬ 
comes it. Levers are divided 
into three kinds, namely—(i) 
when the fulcrum is between 
the weight and the power, as in 
the crowbar; (2) when the 
weight is between the power 
and the fulcrum, as in rowing 
a boat; (3) when the power is 
between the weight and the 
fulcrum, as in raising a ladder 
from the ground. Bones of ani- 


1 

w 

I 

F 

P 


2 

P 

J 

1 

W 



3 



P 

\ 

F 

1 


w 


mals are levers of the third kind. 

Ley'den-jar. [Invented in Leyden, Holland.] 
An instrument used to accumulate electricity. 
It is made of glass, covered on both sides with 
tin-foil nearly to the top, and for the purpose of 
charging it a brass knob is fixed to the neck of 
the jar, through which the electricity passes to 
the interior tin foil. (See Electricity .) 

LPchens. [Gk. leichen .] These are flowerless 
plants, without separate stems or leaves, found 
on rocks, trunks and branches of trees, walls and 
fences, and on barren soil. They are common 
everywhere and at all levels, many of them grow¬ 
ing on mountain sides to the verge of perpetual 
snow. Lichens have no roots, but grow by 
receiving moisture through all parts of their sur¬ 
face. They contain a kind of starch, a bitter 
substance, a resin, and various coloring matters. 
They yield rich dyes of various colors, some of 
which are used in dyeing silks. Iceland moss is 
a lichen which grows in the most barren parts of 
Iceland and other cold countries, and is used for 
food and medicine. The reindeer lichen, cover¬ 
ing the barren plains of Lapland and Siberia, is 
the chief food of the reindeers ; and at one time, 
when grain was very scarce in Sweden, this 
lichen was ground up with flour to make bread. 
The tripe de roche is a lichen growing in the 
northernmost parts of North America, which the 
inhabitants there eat mixed with the roe of fishes. 
(See Moss.) 

Life / boat. A boat constructed for saving persons 
in cases of shipwreck. Its chief qualities are 
strength, to resist the violence of waves, a rocky 
beach, or collision with the wreck ; buoyancy, to 
avoid foundering when a sea is shipped ; ability 
to right itself when capsized, facility in turning, 
and provision for speedy launching. 

Light. [AS. leohty liht] The agent which pro¬ 
duces vision and thereby enables us to see objects. 
Light comes to us from self-luminous bodies in 
the heavens—such as the sun, the fixed stars, 
nebulae, and some meteors; and from substan¬ 
ces on the earth—such as the electric light, 
burning gas and oil, etc. Light proceeds from all 
luminous bodies in straight lines, each one of 
670 


which is called a ray of light. It is supposed 
to consist of undulations or waves in a rare sub¬ 
stance called the luminiferous ether. It moves at 
the rate of over 186,000 miles per second, or 
more than a million times faster than sound, and 
it takes eight minutes for the light of the sun to 
reach the earth. When light falls upon the 
surface of a body, part of it is reflected , the rest 
enters the body. Thus, when we look at a house, 
the light goes first from the sun to the house, 
and then glances from it into our eyes, and thus 
we are able to see a thing which does not make 
any light itself. When a slanting ray of light 
passes from air into water, glass, or anything 
through which it can shine, the ray in the water, 
glass, etc., though still a straight line, is not a 
continuation of its old path, but is bent as it 
passes from one medium to the other. This 
bending of the ray is called refraction. (See 
Prism.) 

Light er. A large, open, flat-bottomed boat used 
in loading and unloading ships. 

Light'house. A tower or building erected on 
headlands along the coast, and on rocks in the 
sea and in rivers, and at the entrance to harbors, 
from which a light is shown at night to guide 
mariners in navigating ships, and to warn them 
of hidden reefs or dangerous shores. Lights are 
fixed, revolving, flashing, colored, and intermit¬ 
tent. There are 530 lights round the British 
coasts, and they are so placed that at any point 
a ship is always in sight of a light. About 2,000 
lights are on the United States coasts. 

Lightning. The vivid flash of light which accom¬ 
panies a sudden discharge of atmospheric elec¬ 
tricity. It occurs in three distinct forms— 
namely, forked lightning, sheet lightning, and 
ball-lightning. In forked lightning the path 
taken by the electricity is that which gives the 
least resistance, and is distinctly seen to be made 
up of straight lines and sudden bends. Sheet¬ 
lightning appears as a diffused glare of reddish 
color, spread over a considerable extent of the 
sky, and is sometimes called summer lightning, 
as it is of frequent occurrence in warm weather. 
Ball-lightning is a very destructive and danger¬ 
ous form of lightning, but happily of rare occur¬ 
rence. 

Lig / num=vit^. [L. lignum , wood; and vitez, of 
life.] The name of the wood of the guaiacum tree 
which grows in the West Indies and South Amer¬ 
ica. The wood is very heavy, hard, close-grained, 
and tough, and is used for making pulleys, wheels 
in ships’ blocks, pestles, rulers, and other articles 
which require to be of a tough material. The 
resinous juice of the tree is used in medicine in 
cases of rheumatism and skin diseases. 

Lil ac. [Sp. lilac.'] A beautiful and fragrant 
flowering shrub, a native of Persia, brought to 
Vienna about three hundred years ago, and now 
cultivated as a familiar garden ornament through¬ 
out Europe and North America. The wood^ is 
fine-grained, and is used for turning, inlaying, 
and making small articles. A fragrant oil can 
be obtained from the leaves by distillation. 














ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


95 


Lily. ( Lilmm .) The popular name of a family 
of plants of many species, producing flowers of 
great beauty and variety of colors. The root is 
a scaly bulb, the stem herbaceous and simple, 
sometimes several feet high, and bearing ele¬ 
gantly-formed flowers near the summit. The 
white lily is a native of the Levaut, and is now 
extensively cultivated in gardens, its large white 
flowers being as much prized for their fragrance 
as for their beauty. The orange lily and the 
martagon or Turk’s cap lily are natives of the 
south of Europe, and now form very showy 
ornaments of the flower-garden. The tiger lily 
is a native of China ; and among the many 
species in North America the finest is the 
super bum (L-), which grows in marshes to the 
height of from 6 to 8 feet, bearing reflexed 
orange flowers spotted with black. 

Lime. [AS. lim.\ An alkaline earth, found as a 
carbonate in chalk, marble and limestone. Quick¬ 
lime is obtained by heating pure carbonate of 
lime to full redness in lime-kilns, when the car¬ 
bonic acid is expelled and lime is left. When 
lime is moistened with water it swells up, gives 
off much heat and steam, and changes into a 
soft white powder, commonly called slaked lime 
{calcium hydrate'). In this form it is used for 
purifying coal gas, in making mortar and plaster 
for building purposes, for removing the hair from 
skins in tanning, making paper pulp, and as 
a manure for land. When slaked lime is put in 
cold water and allowed to settle, the clear water 
is lime-water. In addition to the uses already 
mentioned, lime is used in the manufacture of 
washing-soda, bleaching-powder, and ammonia- 
water ; in refining sugar, and also in iron fur¬ 
naces, lead-smelting, and glass-making. Bleach¬ 
ing-powder, commonly called chloride of lime, 
is a dry white powder, with a slight acid smell. 
It is largely used as a disinfectant. Carbonate 
of lime exists in great abundance in nature, and 
when crystallized is known as Iceland spar. 

Lime=light. A light of great brilliancy, also 
called Drummond light, from its inventor. It 
consists of a burning jet of oxygen and hydrogen 
directed upon a cylinder of lime. This becomes 
white hot and yields an intense white light which 
has been seen at a distance of 112 miles. It is 
much used in the magic lantern and the reflect¬ 
ing microscope. 

Limpet. [L. lepas.~\ A small shell-fish which 
forms a vacuum under its shell, and adheres to 
rocks, being pressed by the weight of the atmos¬ 
phere. 

Lin / den or Lime. A large and beautiful tree, of 
which the American linden often grows to the 
height of 80 feet, and to 2 or 3 feet diameter. 
The leaves are large and serrated. The wood is 
white and soft, much used for carriage and cab¬ 
inet work. The inner bark is strong, and ropes 
are made from it. In Europe the linden is also 
called the lime tree. The principal street of Berlin 
is named Unter den Linden (Under the Lindens). 

Lin'en. [L. linum , flax.] A cloth very much 
used, made of flax, which is woven into such 
goods as tablecloths, cambric, lawn, shirting, 


sheeting, towels, etc. Linen is manufactured in 
the British Islands, and in many manufacturing 
districts in Europe, particularly in France, Bel¬ 
gium, and Germany. Linen thread is prepared 
from fine bleached linen yarn. 

Ling. A fish resembling the cod in form, but 
longer and more slender. 

Lin / net. [Fr. linoT\ A well-known song-bird, 
widely distributed in Europe and in the northwest 
of Africa. It is barely 6 inches in length, feeds 
on soft seeds, and forms its nest of soft stems and 
moss, lined with wool and down, in which it lays 
from four to six eggs of a bluish-white ground, 
speckled with reddish-brown, and generally 
rears two broods in a season. 

Linoleum. A kind of floor-cloth made of ground 
cork and oxidized linseed-oil spread on jute 
canvas, with oil-paint coated on the back. It 
was invented by Walton in i860. 

Lin'seed. [AS. lin, flax; and seed , seed.] The 
seed of flax, largely used for making linseed-oil 
and oil-cake. In making oil the seeds are bruised 
or crushed, then grouud and pressed in a hydraulic 
or screw-press, either cold or heated by steam. 
The seeds give more oil when heated, but the 
cold-pressed oil is the best. Linseed-oil is largely 
used in making paints, varnishes, and printing 
inks. The remains of the seeds after the oil is 
pressed out make oil-cake, which is valuable for 
feeding cattle. Linseed itself is excellent food 
for cattle and for poultry. 

Lint. [AS. linetl\ Linen cloth or rags scraped 
so as to form a soft material suitable for dressing 
wounds and sores. 

Li / on. [Fr., from L. leo.~\ 1 he largest representa¬ 
tive of the Felidee or Cat family. Its distinctive 
features are the large size of its head ; the great 
mane, which covers the head, neck, and shoul¬ 
ders of the males; the uniform tawny color of 
the skin, without spots or stripes ; and the tuft 
at the extremity of the tail. It attains its full 
growth when about seven or eight years old, and 
a male lion of the largest size will then measure 
about 8 feet, and the tail about 4 feet. The lion¬ 
ess is smaller, and has no mane. Lions are 
found in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia. 
Their lurking place is near a spring or by the 
side of a river, where, concealed among the 
brushwood, they wait for the animals coming to 
drink. They hide away in the daytime, and 
prowl about in the evening and early morning, 
and sometimes all night long, their eyes being 
better adapted for the night and twilight than 
for the day. They feed on antelopes, zebras, 
giraffes, and wild cattle, and sometimes carry off 
horses, sheep, and other domestic animals. 

Liq 7 uid. [L. liquidus. ] A fluid or flowing sub¬ 
stance, distinguished from a solid by yielding 
laterally to pressure. It always returns to the 
same level. 

Liquid Air. Air reduced by great pressure and 
intense cold to the liquid state. This process, of 
recent discovery,'can now be performed with ca^c 
and rapidity, large quantities being produced at 
a low cost. Efforts are being made to use it as a 

671 




96 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


source of power. Air can also be frozen into tlie 
solid state, and every known gas, even the 
volatile hydrogen, can be liquified. 

Liq 7 uorice. The word liquorice means “sweet 
root.” The liquorice plant has stems 3 to 4 feet 
high, with small blue, violet, or white flowers, 
and the roots are sometimes half an inch thick 
and a yard long. It is cultivated in the south of 
Europe, chiefly in Spain and Italy. The roots 
are much used by porter-brewers. Spanish liq¬ 
uorice or liquorice juice is largely imported from 
the south of Europe in rolls or sticks , packed in 
bay leaves, or in the form of an extract run into 
boxes of about 2 cwt. each. 

Lithography, [Gk. lithos, a stone; and graphein, 
to write.] The art of tracing letters, figures, 
and other designs on stone, and of transferring 
them to paper by impression. It was invented 
in 1796 by Alois Senefelder in Bavaria, where the 
most suitable stones are still quarried. The stone 
is a kind of limestone, composed of lime, clay, 
and silica, usually of a gray color and of a very 
fine grain. The stones are found in layers vary¬ 
ing in thickness, the thickness required for 
printing-stones being from 1 yi to 5 inches, 
according to size. They are ground face to face 
with sand and water, until the surface of both 
stones is perfectly level. After being carefully 
polished with a smooth polishing-stone they are 
ready for use. Writings or drawings may be 
made on the stone with a fine pen or brush, or 
drawn on paper having a specially prepared sur¬ 
face, and then transferred to the stone. The 
methods of printing, consisting of etching out 
the spaces between the lines of drawing with an 
acid, inking, etc., are too complicated to be here 
described. Chromo-lithographs are lithographs 
in which many colors are printed in one picture. 
As each color is printed from a separate stone, 
from three to thirty stones are often used to 
produce colored pictures. 

Liv 7 er. [AS. lifer .] In man the largest gland in 
the body, situated in the right upper side and 
towards the front of the abdominal cavity, meas¬ 
uring about 12 inches from side to side, and 
weighing from 50 to 60 oz. The blood, laden 
with nutritious matter, has to pass through the 
liver before it can get into the general circulation ; 
and the chief function of the liver is to secrete 
or gather the bile from the blood and send it into 
the gall-bladder, where it is stored up ready to be 
discharged into the intestines during digestion. 

Liz 7 ard. [Fr., from L- lacerta, a lizard.] A term 
applied to an order of reptiles found in almost 
all countries, but most plentiful in warm climates. 
They include the gecko, monitor, dragon, frilled 
lizard, chameleon, and many others. The body 
is usually well covered with scales, and is sup¬ 
ported usually on four legs. Lizards vary in 
length from a few inches to several feet. In a 
great many lizards the tail is almost as brittle as 
glass. A glove or handkerchief thrown upon one 
is enough to break it off, but a new one will 
soon grow out. Their food consists of insects, 
worms, and small animals; but some prey upon 
larger animals, and others are herbivorous. 

672 


Lla 7 ma. A most useful South American animal, 
somewhat like a camel, but smaller and without 
a hump. The llama lives in flocks among 
the Andes, and feeds mostly on coarse grasses, 
mosses, lichens, and shrubs. The ancient Peru¬ 
vians tamed the llama, and kept great num¬ 
bers of them for beasts of burden ; and it is still 
put to this use in many parts of South America, 
especially for carrying goods across steep moun¬ 
tain roads where horses cannot go. The hair of 
the llama is woven into stuffs similar to alpaca. 

Loadstone or Magnetic Iron Ore. A hard red¬ 
dish-black or grey mineral, found in various 
countries. (See Magnet.) 

Lob 7 ster. A well-known crustacean, much es¬ 
teemed for food. Lobsters are found all round 
the coasts of Europe, and along the Atlantic 
coast of the United States north of New York. 
Immense quantities are sent from America to 
Europe, packed and preserved in hermetically 
sealed cans. Lobsters differ in size, weighing 
from 2 to 15 lbs. Their two large claws are fitted 
with tooth-like serrations—in the one they are 
many and sharp, in the other few and blunt— 
and with these they crash their food, which is 
chiefly clams, mussels, and other molluscs. 
They are caught in traps made either of basket- 
work or of netting, the bait used being dead fish. 
The shell of the lobster is dark-green when alive, 
but it turns to bright red when boiled. 

Lock. [AS. loc or loce.~\ A well-knowm instru¬ 
ment for fastening doors, drawers, chests, etc., 
generally opened by a key. The chief parts of 
a lock are the bolt or part which locks, and the 
staple into which the bolt enters when turned by 
the key. Good locks are distinguished by the 
number of impediments that can be interposed 
betwixt the key and the bolt, these impediments 
being called the wards of the lock, which are so 
arranged as to slip into corresponding grooves of 
the key. The tumbler-lock has two notches 011 
the upper side of the bolt, on which rests the 
tumbler, which is pressed by a spring into the 
notches according as the lock is open or shut. 

Locomotive Steam =erjgine. The traction engine 



used on railroads for drawing cars. The first 
effective locomotive, the “Rocket,” was invented 
by George Stephenson in 1829, though others 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


97 


had been made earlier. Since then immense 
improvements have been made and very swift 
and powerful locomotives built. 

Locomobile'. An automobile or motor carriage 
moved by steam. 

Lo'cust. [L. locusta.~\ An insect somewhat like 
a grasshopper in shape, but with shorter antennae 
or feelers and stouter legs. Its hind legs are 
very strong, enabling it to make long leaps ; and 
its wings are beautifully colored, and from their 
great length give it the power of sustaining long 
and high occasional flights. “ Locusts fly in 
great clouds from place to place, and eat up every 



green thing where they alight.” In some parts 
of Asia and Africa they come in such numbers 
as to darken the sky in their flight, aud they are 
frequently seen in southern Europe and commit 
great ravages there. They have also been very 
destructive in the western United States, where 
they are known as the Rocky Mountain locusts. 
The seventeen-year locusts live as larvae in the 
ground for seventeen years, and afterwards come 
to the surface and become winged insects. Some 
species remain underground for a shorter period. 

Locust or St. John’s Bread. A tree highly 
valued for its wood. Its leaves are soft aud 
velvety, and it bears clusters of white, sweet¬ 
smelling flowers. Its wood is compact and hard, 
of a greenish-yellow color. The honey-locust 
tree of America and the West Indies is a large 
tree, but its wood is not so valuable as that of 
the common locust. It bears long flat pods full 
of brown seeds, in a honey-like pulp. Its trunk 
and limbs are covered with sharp thorns. 

Log. A part of the apparatus for measuring the 
rate of a ship’s motion through the water, con¬ 
sisting of a flat piece of wood, usually in the 
form of a quadrant, loaded with lead at its circu- ; 
lar edge to make it float upright. To it is j 
attached the log-line, which runs freely from a | 
reel, and is marked by knots at intervals of five j 
fathoms. The number of knots run out during 
the running of the half-minute sand-glass tells 
the number of miles per hour which the vessel is 
making. (See Knot.) 

Logwood. [So called because it was brought to 
Europe in logs.] A tree which grows in Central 
America, on the Bay of Carnpeachy, and some of 
the West India islands. The wood, sometimes 
called Carnpeachy wood , is of a deep red color 
internally, and is very extensively used as a dye- 
wood. Logwood is sometimes used as a medicine. 

Lon gitude. The lines of longitude are a series of 
imaginary lines which surround the earth at 
right angles to the equator and pass through 
the poles. Longitude is measured along the 
equator east or west from a standard line or 
meridian, that of Greenwich, England, being 
usually employed. The length of a degree of 

43 


longitude decreases north and south from the 
equator, and vanishes at the poles, where the 
lines all meet. 

Lum'bering. The cutting of forest timber for 
commercial use. This has become an immense 
industry in the United States, more than 24,000,- 
000,000 feet being cut annually for various pur¬ 
poses. The white pine has long been the favorite 
lumber tree, but many others are used. 

Lungs. [AS. lungen.) The lungs are the organs 
of respiration. In man the lungs lie in the 
thorax or chest on each side of the heart—the 
right lung being a little shorter and broader than 
the left lung. They are light, spongy bodies, 
full of little cells which can be filled with air. 
The blood sent from the right side of the heart 
to the lungs is of a dark color, and contains 
much carbonic acid gas ; while the blood taken 
away from the lungs back to the left side of 
the heart is of a scarlet hue, and contains less 
carbonic acid gas and more oxygen. The oxygen 



THE LUNGS, WIND PIPE AND HEART 


is taken from the air that enters the lungs, while 
a nearly equal quantity of carbonic acid gas 
passes from the blood outwards into the air, and 
is expelled from the mouth. (See Heart.) 

Lute. An ancient musical instrument, of the 
guitar kind. It somewhat resembles the pear in 
shape, aud was played by striking the strings 
with the fingers. It was in common use till the 
end of the 17th century, when the guitar took 
its place. 

Lynx. [L. lynx.] An animal resembling the 
common cat, but with longer ears and a shorter 
tail. It preys on small quadrupeds and birds, 
and in pursuit of prey frequently climbs to 

673 














9 » 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


the tops of tall trees. Lynxes are widely dis¬ 
tributed throughout Europe, Asia, and North 
America. The Canada lynx is hunted for its fur, 
which is prized for robes, muffs, and collars. 

Lyre. The oldest known of all stringed instru¬ 
ments, invented, according to old tradition, by 


the god Mercury. It was the predecessor of the 
harp, and possessed at first but three strings, 
which were gradually increased to eleven. It 
was played upon by a stick of ivory or polished 
wood. It was used to accompany the voice and 
was probably of Egyptian origin. 


M 

Macadam. Broken stones, about from 2 oz. to 
6oz. in weight each, used as road metal; invented 
about 1810 by Macadam, a Scottish road contrac¬ 
tor. 

Macaro 7 ni. [Ital. maccheroni , from maccare , to 
bruise or crush.] A kind of food made from the 
paste or dough of fine wheat flour, formed in 
small tubes or pipes. It forms a favorite article 
of food among Italians. In the neighborhood 
of Naples whole villages are engaged in its manu¬ 
facture. It is also made at Marseilles and other 
places in the south of France, and large quan¬ 
tities are exported to all parts of the world. 
Macaroni is used in various ways—boiled, served 
with grated cheese, for thickening soups and 
for making puddings. 

Macaroon 7 . A favorite cake or biscuit, composed 
chiefly of the meal of sweet almonds, whites of 
eggs, and sugar. 

Macaw 7 . A race of beautiful birds found in the 
tropical regions of America, and included in the 
Parrot family. 

Mace. A staff with an ornamental head, carried 
before officers of state and magistrates as an 
emblem of authority; a well-known spice, 
which forms the inner envelope of the growing 
nutmeg. It occurs as a fine scarlet net-work, 
which is stripped off and dried. It is regarded 
as the most choice of all the spices. 

Mack 7 erel. [Fr,, from L. macula , a spot.] A 
well-known salt-water fish,marked with spots on 
its sides, and much used for food. They move 
about in vast shoals, and visit the British and 
American coasts in summer, following after her¬ 
rings, sprats, or pilchards, on which they prey. 
They are caught by means of drift nets and shore 
weirs, but a common mode of capture is by hook 
and line. The hooks are baited with small pieces 
of mackerel skin ; but the mackerel is a very 
voracious fish, and will bite at a piece of red 
flannel, or anything brightly colored or of a glit¬ 
tering appearance. The common mackerel aver¬ 
ages 14 inches in length, and weighs about 2 lbs. 

Mad 7 der. [AS. mceddere .] The name of a very 
useful red dye obtained from the roots of the 
madder plant, which is found in the warm parts 
of the Old and New Worlds. Madder is used by 
dyers to make a great variety of red tints, and 
by varying the mordant such colors as madder- 
orange, madder-purple, madder-yellow, etc., are 
easily produced. Turkey-red used in dyeing cotton 
goods is a madder color. Alizarin, the red color¬ 
ing principle of madder, is now made artificially. 

Mag 7 ic=Lan 7 tern. An optical instrument which, 
by means of lenses and a lamp or lime-light, 
enlarges small figures painted with transparent 

674 


varnish on sides of glass, and exhibits them on 
a white screen in a darkened room. It is said to 
have been invented by Athanasius Kircher in 
1646. At present transparent photograph slides, 
plain or colored, are used in the lantern, and 
much used in illustrating lectures. 

Magne 7 sium. A metal ofasilver-whitecolor, found 
in many minerals. It is got by fusion from 
magnesium chloride. It is very light, easily 
tarnished, and when lighted burns with a brilliant 
glow. It may be drawn into wire, filed, bored, 
or flattened easily. On burning, magnesium 
unites with oxygen, and leaves a white powder. 
This is called magnesia ( magnesium oxide ), 
which, when united with sulphuric acid, makes 
magnesium sulphate. Magnesium sulphate is 
found in a mineral spring at Epsom in England, 
and is commonly known as Epsom salts. 

Mag 7 net. [E. magues, from Magnesia .] An ore 
of iron, “the loadstone,” first found at Magne¬ 
sia, a city in Lydia ; now found in different parts 
of the world, especially in Sweden and in the 

States of New York and 
New Jersey. A loadstone 
or natural magnet has the 
peculiar properties of at¬ 
tracting iron and some of 
its ores, and of pointing 
to the poles. If a load¬ 
stone be held near to iron 
filings, they will cling to 
it in a cluster. Tacks and 
small nails may be raised 
by it, and if the load¬ 
stone be a large one it will hold up quite a 
heavy weight. This pow T er which the load¬ 
stone has of attracting iron is called magnet¬ 
ism. Bars of iron or steel may have the pro¬ 
perties of the loadstone or natural magnet im¬ 
parted to them, and hence we have what are 
called artificial magnets. Common iron will 
not keep its magnetic properties long, but steel 
will. Artificial magnets are made of various 
forms, the most common being the bar shape. 
Powerful permanent magnets are made by plac¬ 
ing several thin magnetized bars side by side, 
fastened firmly together. Such a collection of 
magnets is called a magnetic battery , and is more 
powerful than a solid bar of the same weight. A 
bar of soft iron may have the properties of a 
magnet imparted to it by sending a current of 
electricity through a coil of wire surrounding it. 
Itis then called an electro-magnet (See Dynamo.) 

Magno 7 Iia. \Magnol , a professor of botany at 

Montpellier, died 1715.] The name of a tree, a 
native of North America, India, China, and 















99 


encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


Japan, now very widely cultivated, and much ad¬ 
mired on account of the beauty of its flowers and 
foliage. 

Mag pie. [Afag, short form of Margaret ; and 

pie, from L. pica, a magpie.] A bird of the Crow 
tribe, distinguished from the true crows by its 
small size, short wings, long tail, and variegated 
plumage. It is noted for its cunning, is easily 
tamed, and may be taught to speak a few words. 
It feeds on snails, slugs, worms, frogs, rats, mice, 
and the eggs and young of poultry; and when 
disturbed by any person or animal it keeps up a 
continual chatter, from which comes the saying 
to “ chatter like a magpie.” Magpies are com¬ 
mon in Europe and in the northern parts of 
America. 

Mahog any. The wood of a tree of the same 
name, a native of Central America and the West 
Indies. It is a beautiful tree, from 80 to ioo feet 
high, the trunk being often 5 feet in circumfer¬ 
ence. The wood is heavy, hard, close-grained, of a 
reddish-brown color, and susceptible of a brilliant 
polish. It is used in the making of furniture, 
and for the inside woodwork of railway cars, 
sometime solid, but more often as a veneer, or 
thin layer glued on inferior wood. The wood 
varies much in value according to the color and 
beauty of its veins. 

Maidenhair. A species of fern, so called because 
of its very fine hair-like fronds. 

Maize or Indian Corn. An important grain of 
American origin, distinguished by the peculiar 
arrangement of its large seeds on a long cylin¬ 
drical cob. It grows on a stalk resembling that 
of the sugar cane, varying from 5 to 10 feet in 
height. Its cultivation is simple, and the returns 
very large, its produce being greater than that of 
any other grain. Corn-flour is extensively used 
as food. Maize meal is not well adapted for 
making bread, but is sometimes mixed with 
wheaten flour for that purpose. It is also used 
in the manufacture of starch. In some countries 

the husks are used in 
making paper and mat¬ 
tresses, and in stuffing 
chairs and saddles. More 
than 2,000 million bushels 
of maize are grown in 
the United States annu¬ 
ally, much of it being 
used in fattening swine. 

MaUachite. A mineral 
of a dark and emerald- 
green color; a carbonate 
of copper, much used for 
ornamental purposes. 
riala / ria. [Ital. mala, 

WINE SKIN BOTTLES. bad ; and flm, air.] A 

poisonous condition of the air most powerful 
near marshes, producing certain kinds of low 
fever. It is found to be due to a bacterial 
microbe, probably largely disseminated by mos¬ 
quitoes. 

MaFlet. [Fr. maillet.'] A wooden hammer for 
beating lead, etc., for driving wooden pins, or 
for using with chisels. 

L.ofC. 


flaUIow. A plant common throughout Europe 
and in Britain, on waysides and heaps of rubbish. 
Its soft downy leaves are sometimes used to allay 
external inflammation. 

MalrrUsey. [From Malvasia, in the south of 
Greece.] The name of a sweet wine, or the grape 
from which it is made ; originally exported from 
Malvasia, but now made in other places. 

Halt, [AS. mealt .] Barley or other grain steeped 
in water until it begins to germinate, and then 
dried to stop the growth, thus converting the 
Starch of the grain into sugar. It is used in 
brewing and distilling. 

riam'mals. [U. mamma.\ The highest class of 
vertebrate or backboned animals; so called 
because they all feed their young with milk 
formed in their own bodies. In mammals the 
heart is divided into four chambers, the blood is 
warm, and the skin has a covering of hair, wool, 
or bristles. 

Man. [AS. man.'] Man is the chief of mammals, 
the superior of all animals, the only one which 
walks erect, and the only one which talks. He 
excels all other animals not only in body, but in 
mind. This enables him to reason and to invent, 
and to have power over the elements and lower 

. animals. The mind is seated in the brain, and 
man has a much larger brain, in proportion to 
the size of his body, than any other animal. 
The human body is made up of the head, trunk, 
arms and legs. The head contains the brain and 
the organs of hearing, seeing, smelling and 
tasting. The trunk is divided into two parts by 
a partition called the diaphragm. The upper 
part, called the thorax or chest, contains the heart 
and lungs; and the lower part, larger than the 
upper, called the abdomen or belly, contains the 
stomach, intestines or bowels, liver, and kidneys. 
The arms and legs are made up of a framework 
of bones joined together by ligaments. 

flarUakin. The name applied to a race of birds 
common in the tropical parts of South America, 
of very small size, and noted for the beauty of 
their plumage. 

riaiichineeF. [L. mancanilla.'] A tree which 
grows in the West Indies and tropical America, 
noted for its poisonous fruit and poisonous milky 
juice. The Indians use it for poisoning their 
arrows. The wood is of fine quality, beautifully 
veined, and highly valued for cabinet-work. 

MarUatee. A genus of marine, plant-eating 
mammals, known as cow whales or sea-cows, 
found in the coast waters and river mouths of 
Africa and South America. They include the 
Manatee and the Dugong. 

Manganese'. A metal closely allied to iron. The 
important manganese ores are black oxide, brown 
oxide, and bog manganese. Large deposits exist 
in Spain, Portugal, and the United States. In 
Nova Scotia there is an ore very free from iron 
much used in glass-making. Manganese is 
largely used in the Bessemer process and as 
spiegel iron. 

Han'go. [Malay.] The fruit of the mango tree, 
which grows in India and the East and West 

675 


















IOO 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


Indies. II is very nutritions, and is used as a 
dessert in hot countries. The green fruit is 
pickled in the East Indies. 

Man'gold or Man / gel=wurzel. [Ger. mangold ', 
beet ; and wurzel , root.] A plant resembling 
beet, but larger and coarser, extensively culti¬ 
vated as food for cattle. 

Man / grove. [Malay.] This tree grows on muddy 
shores and river-banks in tropical countries. It 
sends down shoots from its branches, which take 
root and form new stems. 

lTanil / a=heinp. [From Manila, in the Philippine 
Islands.] The material obtained from the thread¬ 
like fibres of a kind of banana-tree which grows 
in the Philippine Islands, and largely used for 
making cables, ropes, and cordage. 

Manioc or Mandioc. (See Tapioca.) 

Map. [Fr., from L,. mappa, a napkin.] A draw¬ 
ing or representation on paper or other material 
of the surface of the earth or part of it, showing 
the shape and position of the countries, seas, 
rivers, etc. 

Ma / ple. [AS.] A tree with a great variety of species, 
many of them found in North America, some 
in Europe and Asia, and a few in Japan. Some 
are small shrubs and others are large trees. The 
red maple, the sugar maple, and the white maple 
are common throughout the United States. The 
wood of the red maple is used for inlaying and 
for making stocks of rifles and fowling-pieces. 
The sugar maple yields a sap from which sugar 
is made, and the wood forms excellent fuel, and 
makes the best of charcoal. Some kinds, called 
curled and bird’s-eye maple, because the grain is 
twisted or marked like birds’ eyes, are used in 
cabinet-work. The wood of the common maple, 
a native of many parts of Europe and Asia, is 
fine-grained, compact, takes a high polish, and 
is much used by turners, and for carved work. 

Mar / ble. [Fr., from L,. marnior .] Certain varie¬ 
ties of limestone, of sufficiently compact texture 
to admit of a polish, are known by the name of 
marble. It is a beautiful stone, usually white, 
but frequently colored, and marked with stripes, 
spots, and shades of different tints. As a build¬ 
ing stone, marble is valuable for its great dura¬ 
bility ; and being susceptible of a brilliant polish, 
is largely used for the purposes of art or archi¬ 
tectural ornament. Carrara marble, from quarries 
in North Italy, and Parian marble, from the isle 
of Paros, are famous for statuary purposes. 

/Tar'garin. [Fr.] A solid, fatty, pearl-like sub¬ 
stance (of stearin and palmitin) made from olive 
and other vegetable oils, and also from the fat of 
some animals. 

Marigold. A well-known annual plant, bearing a 
large j^ellow flower, a native of France and the 
southern parts of Europe. The French marigold 
and the African marigold, both Mexican species, 
have brilliant flowers, and form beautiful borders 
in flower-gardens. The well-known ice-plants 
are fig-marigolds. 

Marjoram. [Fr-] A genus of plants of the 
natural order Eabiatse. The most common kind 
is the sweet marjoram, which diffuses a sweet 

676 


and pleasant odor, and is much used in cookery 
for seasoning. 

Marl. A mixture of clay and carbonate of lime, 
found in Europe, and along the Atlantic coast 
from New Jersey southward. It is used as a fer¬ 
tilizer. 

Mar'malade. [Portuguese marmelada; from 
marmelo , a quince.] A preserve made by boil¬ 
ing fruits, such as oranges, pine-apples, and 
quinces. The most common kind of marmalade 
is made from bitter or Seville oranges. The rind 
is cut up into thin strips and boiled with the pulp 
and an equal weight of sugar, to which half that 
weight of water is added. 

Mar'moset. A small kind of monkey, found only 
in South America. 

Mar'mot. An animal nearly allied to the squirrels, 
but in form and habits more closely resembling 
rats and mice. Marmots are natives of the higher 
parts of the Alps and Pyrenees, and of Central 
Asia and North America. 

MaCrow. [AS.] Fatty matter contained in the 
hollow parts of the large bones of animals. The 
whale, the skate, and the turtle have no cavities 
in their bones. 

Mars. The smallest of the planets except Mer¬ 
cury, and the nearest to the earth of the outer 
planets. It is of nearly 5,000 miles diameter, and 
about 142,000,000 miles from the sun. It is the 
only planet the details of whose surface can be 
seen from the earth, and presents interesting 
appearances not yet understood. 

MarfeiFpials. An order of mammals distinguished 
by the fact that the young are born in the embryo 
state, and are carried for a time in a peculiar 
pouch in the abdomen of the mother. 

Marten. [Fr. marte .] A genus of carnivorous 
quadrupeds, belonging to the Weasel family. 
The body is elongated and slim, the ears larger 
than in the weasel, the tail bushy, the legs short, 
and the feet have five toes, with long sharp claws. 
Martens live generally in thick woods, and can 
climb trees with the greatest ease. They feed on 
rats, mice, birds, and other small animals. They 
are widely distributed over Europe, Asia, and 
North America. The sable marten inhabits Si¬ 
beria, and furnishes the highly valuable sable 
fur. The pine marten, or American sable, is 
found in the northern parts of North America, 
especially in the thick pine woods. It is much 
hunted for its fur, which is very handsome and 
highly prized. 

Mar tin. A genus of birds of the Swallow family. 
The best known of the American species is the 
purple martin. It will readily nest in a bird-box, 
near houses. 

Mas'sage. A system of medical treatment by 
kneading, rubbing, and stroking the muscles, 
used especially for nervous diseases. 

Mas'tiff. A large dog, noted for its strength and 
courage, often used for watching houses. 

flas'todon. A kind of large animal allied to the 
elephant, but larger and with tusks of great 
length. It was formerly abundant in the United 
States, and probably lived in the early human 
period, but is now only found as a fossil. 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


IOI 


Match. A small splint of wood, tipped with 
some very inflammable composition, which 
bursts into flame upon friction. The first used 
were brimstone matches, tipped with sulphur. 
In 1829 an English chemist discovered friction 
matches, and the making of matches is now an 
important industry. The best wood for matches 
is white or yellow pine. The wood is cut into 
blocks, and the blocks into square splints. The 
splints are dipped into melted sulphur, and after¬ 
wards into phosphorus, mixed with nitre, fine 
glue, etc. Safety matches can be kindled only 
by rubbing upon the side of the box, on which 
the phosphorous composition is glued. 

Mat'tock. [AS*, mattuc, a shovel.] A tool of 
husbandry, used for digging and grubbing up 
roots of trees and weeds. 

Hat/tress. [O.F. materas.^ A quilted bed, stuffed 
with hair, wool, or other soft material, instead 
of feathers. 

Ha'vis. [Fr. mauvis.'] A thrush ; properlv the 
song-thrush, not the screech-thrush. 


Medal. A circular piece of metal stamped or en¬ 
graved with a head or design upon it and issued 
usually to celebrate or mark some great event. 

Meerschaum. [Ger. meer, the sea; and schaum, 
foam.] A light, soft magnesian mineral, used 
in Turkey and Germany in the manufacture of 
tobacco-pipes. 

MeFon. [Fr., from U. melo .] A plant of the 
Gourd family, to which the cucumber also 
belongs. It is an annual, with trailing stems, 
angular leaves, yellow flowers, and bearing a 
large juicy fruit, which possesses a delicious 
flavor. It is largely cultivated. The native 
country of the melon is unknown, but there are 
numerous varieties found throughout Europe, 
Asia, and America. The two principal kinds of 
melons in the United States are the musk-melon 
and the water-melon ( citrullus ). 

MerrFbrane. [Fr. membrane .] A thin organ, 
resembling a supple elastic web, serving to secrete 
a fluid, or to separate, envelop, and form other 
organs. 

Mercury. [U. mercurius.~\ A metal of a silvery- 
white color, also known by the name of quick¬ 
silver. It is a liquid at ordinary temperatures, 
becomes solid at 39 0 below zero F. and boils at 


662° F. Small drops of the pure metal are 
sometimes found, but its common ore is cinnabar 
(mercury sulphide), composed of mercury and 
sulphur. Mercury unites with most metals to 
form alloys called amalgams. These are very 
extensively used in the processes of silvering 
and gilding, in the production of vermilion, and 
in extracting gold and silver from their ores. 
Mercury is used in making barometers and ther¬ 
mometers, and in various medicines. Cinnabar, 
the ore from which mercury is chiefly obtained, 
is found in Almaden ( v Spain), Illyria, and the 
Ural Mountains, and in California, Peru, China, 
and Japan. 

Mer'cury. The smallest planet, and the one ncar- 
estto the sun ; its distance being36,000,000 miles. 
It is 2,992 miles in diameter, and moves around 
the sun at the speed of 105,000 miles an hour, its 
year being equal to 88 of our days. Its period of 
rotation on its axis is not known. 

MeritFian. [U. meridies, mid-day.] A great cir¬ 
cle thought of as passing through the North and 

South Poles, and also 
through any place on the 
earth’s surface. Thus 
every place has its own 
meridian, and it is mid¬ 
day at any place on the 
earth’s surface when the 
centre of the sun comes 
upon the meridian of that 
place. 

HerFno. [Span.] A 
breed of sheep with fine 
wool; originally in Spain, 
now largely raised in the 
United States and Aus¬ 
tralia ; also the name of 
a cloth made from this 
wool. 

Merry=thought. A forked bone between the 
neck and breast of a fowl ; so called from being 
that which two persons pull at in play. The one 
who breaks off the longer part has the omen of 
being first married. Also called wish-bone. 

Met/als. [U. metallum.~\ Minerals having cer¬ 
tain properties, the chief of which are—1. They 
are all opaque, and they all have a shiny surface 
known as the metallic lustre. 2. They are good 
conductors of heat and electricity. 3. With the 
exception of gold and copper, their color is a 
grayish white. 4. With the exception of mer¬ 
cury, they are all solids at ordinary temperatures. 
5. All metals can be melted, but the tempera¬ 
tures at which they assume the fluid form vary 
very much. 6. Great weight, most metals being 
heavier than water. Platinum is more than 
twenty times as heavy as water. Metals difler 
from each other in malleability, ductility, and 
tenacity. A metal is said to be malleable when 
it can be hammered out into thin sheets. Gold 
is the most malleable, and next to it in order are 
silver, copper, platinum, iron,’ tin, zinc, and 
lead. Some metals are so brittle that they cannot 
be hammered at all. When a metal can be drawn 
out like wire, it is ductile. Gold is the most 

677 


















102 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


ductile of all metals. When a metal has the 
power of holding together under a strain, it is 
said to have tenacity. Iron is the most tenacious 
or elastic of all metals. 

He'teor. [Fr. meteore.] Any natural phenom¬ 
enon in the atmosphere or clouds; applied 
particularly to a fiery or luminous body occa¬ 
sionally seen moving rapidly through the atmo¬ 
sphere, and to a fireball; called also a falling 
star. ( q.v .) 

Me'tre. [Fr. metre .] Unit of the metric system 
of length, equal to 39.37 English inches. 

MFca. [U. mica , a small bit.] A mineral found 
in granite and most of the other primary rocks. 
It easily divides into glittering plates of great 
thinness. It is so transparent that it is used in 
Siberia, China, Peru, and other countries as a 
substitute for glass in windows. Mica is some¬ 
times preferred to glass for lanterns, and is also 
used for doors of stoves, as it is not so liable to 
break with sudden changes of temperature. 

Mi'crophone. An apparatus for magnifying very- 
faint sounds, by variation of electrical resistance. 
It forms the basic principle of the carbon tele¬ 
phone transmitter. 

dFcroscope. [Gk. mikros, small; and skopein, to 
see.] An instrument for viewing objects which 

are too small to be seen 
with the naked eye. 
A simple microscope 
consists of a tube hav¬ 
ing one convex lens, 
which magnifies the 
object; while a com¬ 
pound microscope has 
two convex lenses in a 
tube, one of which is 
called the object glass, 
and the other one the 
eye-glass. In the com¬ 
pound microscope the 
thing looked at is first 
magnified by the ob¬ 
ject-glass, and this is 
again magnified by the 
eye-glass. The micro¬ 
scope is an interesting 
and wonderful instru¬ 
ment, and by its means 
many living things in¬ 
visible to the naked 
eye are revealed. The 
microscope is also ap¬ 
plied to the study of rock structure by grinding 
down the stone to thin sections. Preparations for 
the microscope are preserved on glass slips (3x1 
in.) covered by very thin glass fastened by Can¬ 
ada balsam or shellac. 

MignonnetteT [Fr. mignonnette.] An annual 
plant and flower prized for its delicate and agree¬ 
able fragrance. 

Milk. [AS.] A white fluid secreted in the mam¬ 
mary glands' of the females of all mammals. 
When examined under the microscope, milk is 
seen to consist of a clear fluid, filled with round 
floating balls of fat of very minute size, each one 

678 


enclosed in a separate film or thin skin of albu¬ 
men. When milk has stood for some time these 
balls of fat rise to the surface, and form a layer 
of cream. When cream is churned the cases of 
the balls are broken, and the fat runs together 
and makes butter. Skimmed milk is that which 
remains after the cream is removed. Condensed 
milk is prepared from that of the cow, sweetened 
with sugar and boiled down until the water is 
out of it, thus forming a thick, sweet paste, 
which is sealed up in tin cans. 

MiFIet. [Fr., from U. milium.'] The name of 
several kinds of grasses bearing a great number 
of small round seeds used as food. The common 
millet is a native of the East Indies, but is also 
cultivated in the warmer parts of Europe, Africa, 
the United States, and the West Indies. The 
seeds are ground up into meal for bread. Certain 
kinds of millet bear seeds used as food for cattle, 
poultry, and cage-birds. 

Milkweed. A family of plants found in North 
and South America, which are full of milky 
juice. The seeds are covered with a silky down, 
which has been mixed with cotton and woven 
into cloth. The root is used in medicine. 

Milky Way. A broad, luminous belt encircling 
the sky, and shown by the telescope to be made 
up of a countless multitude of suns, so immensely 
distant as to be very dimly visible. There are 
probably more than a thousand millions of suns 
in this wonderful belt. 

Mimosa. [Gk. mimos , imitator.] A genus of 
leguminous plants, including among its species 
the sensitive plant, so called from its seeming to 
imitate the sensibility of animal life. 

Mine. [Fr. mine.] A subterraneous work or ex¬ 
cavation for obtaining metals, metallic ores, or 
other mineral substances. The deepest mine is 
the Spensenberg, near Berlin, 4,175 feet. 

Min / eral. [It. miner ale.] A natural body desti¬ 
tute of organization or life ; a substance found in 
or on the earth which is neither animal nor 
vegetable. 

nineral Waters. Waters or springs impregnated 
with mineral substances. 

flink. A quadruped of the Weasel tribe, often 
called minx, and valued for its fur, which is of a 
chestnut-brown color. It is found in the cold 
parts of North America, Europe and Asia, living 
on the banks of rivers and lakes, and feeding on 
small birds, fishes, frogs, and mussels. 

MirFnow. [Fr. menu , small.] The name applied 
to several species of very small fishes found in 
fresh water ponds and rivers. Minnows average 
from 2 to 3 inches in length, and feed on aquatic 
plants, worms, insects, and small snails. They 
are generally caught by a small hand-net, and 
used as bait to catch other fish. 

Mint. [AS., from L,. mentha.] The name of a 
strongly-smelling plant, with flowers in whorls. 
Numerous species are known, widely distributed 
over the world, but the most important are spear¬ 
mint and peppermint. Spearmint is the common 
mint found in gardens, and is largely used in 
making mint-sauce and for flavoring soups. The 
oil of mint is distilled from the leaves, and from 













ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


103 


the oil are made the essence of mint and mint- 
water. Peppermint is cultivated chiefly for the 
oil which it yields, so much used for flavoring 
confectionery and for making cordials and es¬ 
sences. Essence of peppermint is made by mixing 
the oil w T ith alcohol, and is used in medicine. 

MiTage. An optical illusion often seen in hot 
climates, especially in deserts. Travelers appar¬ 
ently see a broad lake with surrounding trees, 
where only desert sand exists. It is a phenom¬ 
enon of refraction. 

Mir Tor. [Fr. miroir.~\ A plate of glass lined at 
the back with a brilliant metal, so as to reflect 
the image of any object placed before it. Mirrors 
are made by coating the back of a sheet of plate- 
glass with an amalgam of mercury and tin-foil. 
In ancient times mirrors were made of polished 
metal. Ordinary mirrors have flat surfaces, but 
there are also convex mirrors, which cause the 
rays of light to diverge and decrease the size of 
the reflected image, and concave mirrors , in 
which the rays are reflected to a focus and the 
image magnified. Beyond the focus it is inverted. 



Hist. [AS.] Moisture visible in the air ; rain in 
very fine and almost imperceptible drops. (See 
Fog.) 

Mistletoe. [AS. mistelta. ] An evergreen plant 
that grows on the branches of many kinds of 
trees. In winter it is covered with small white 
berries. This plant was held in great veneration 
by the Druids and is now used in the Christmas 
festivities. 

MFtre. [FT., from Gk. mitra. ] A crown or 
head-dress worn by archbishops and bishops 
during solemn church services. 

Mitre=joint. The joint made by the ends of two 
pieces of wood fitted together at a right angle, as 
in the corners of a picture-frame. The mould¬ 
ings are usually sawn in a mitre-box , the sides of 


which have saw-cuts through them at an angle 
of 45 0 to guide the saw in cutting. 

Moc / casin. A venomous snake of the United 
States, resembling the rattlesnake, but without 
a rattle. The name is sometimes given impro¬ 
perly to the copperhead. Also the shoe of buck 
skin formerly worn by the Indians. 

Mock / ing=bird. A bird which gets its name from 
its habit of imitating the songs of other birds. 
It is a kind of thrush, found only in North and 
South America and the West Indies. Its form is 
graceful, but its plumage is not very handsome. 
Its own song, which is sweet and pleasing, is 
heard mostly at night. During the day it 
imitates the songs of other birds, passing from 
one to another with the greatest ease, now war¬ 
bling like a canary or blue-bird, then cackling 
like a hen or screaming like a swallow. It can 
imitate various other sounds, and readily learns 
to whistle a tune. Mocking-birds feed chiefly on 
berries and insects, are easily tamed, and live 
happily in cages if caught when young. 

Mo / hair. [Fr. moire.~\ The hair of a kind of 

goat found in the neighborhood of Angora, in 
Asia Minor, and now also at the Cape and in 
California. The covering of this goat is a long, 
soft, silky, pure white hair or w6ol, which is 
woven into varieties of camlet, shawls, and 
trimmings, and in France into a fine kind of 
lace. 

Molas'ses. [U. mellaceus , honey-sweet.] The 
thick liquid of the juice of the sugar-cane, 
which separates from it in the process of manu¬ 
facture. (See Cane Sugar.) 

Mole. [O E. mold warp = thrower-up of mould 
or earth.] The mole is found in Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and North America ; but is not found in 
Ireland or in the Western Isles of Scotland. From 
its habits and mode of life it is one of the most 
interesting of mammals. It lives underground, 
and seldoms sees the light. Its food consists of 
earthworms and the larvae of insects. It has a 
long cylindrical body, very short limbs, and a 
pointed snout. Its forearms, hands, and claws 
are shaped into strong tools for scraping, digging, 
and shoveling away the earth. The eyes are 
completely hidden in the fur, and though the 
sense of sight is probably very imperfect, the 
senses of hearing and smelling are very acute. 
Moles in making their tunnels damage the roots 
of plants, but they are very useful in destroying 
a vast number of grubs, which would otherwise 
feed on and do more damage to the roots than 
the moles. 

MollusTa. [L. mollis , soft.] The animals in¬ 
cluded in this group have soft, inarticulated 
bodies, usually inclosed in a shell, the body cov¬ 
ered with a sensitive contractile skin, kept moist¬ 
ened by a viscid fluid which exudes from it. In 
one large division of molluscs (gastropods) the 
under surface of the body is covered by a 
broad fleshy disc or foot, on which the animal 
glides slowly along. Snails and slugs possess 
this foot. Of the shell-covered molluscs some 
live in univalve, others in bivalve, or multivalve 
shells. To the bivalves belong, oysters, mussels, 

679 










io4 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


and cockles; to the univalves snails, whelks, 
cowries, limpets, etc. The shells of the former 
class are joined by a hinge, and the inhabitant has 
the power of opening and closing the valves at 
will. Many of the inhabitants of the univalve 
shells have a horny or shelly plate attached to 
their bodies, which serves the purpose of a door 
when the animal retires within its house. This is 
well illustrated in the common periwinkle. 

MorCey. [E. moneta.] Stamped metal, generally 
of gold, silver, or copper, used in traffic, or as 
the measure of price. The term mo?iey is now 
applied to whatever serves as a circulating 
medium, including bank notes and drafts, as 
well as metallic coins. 

MoiFkey. [Ital. monicchio.] The name of a 
family of animals found in the tropical parts of 
America, Asia, and Africa. They resemble man 
more than any other animals, both in their out¬ 
ward form and in their skeletons, and they some¬ 
time act very much like man. They live mostly 
in trees, which they climb with great ease. 
Their food consists of fruits, nuts, and insects. 
They are cunning and mischevious, and, if the 
higher apes be included, are the most intelligent 
of the animals below man. Many of the Amer¬ 
ican apes have prehensile tails, by the aid of 
which they can swing from branch to branch. 



MITRE BOX AND SAW 


Mon'ogram. [Gk. monos , alone ; and gramma , 
a letter.] One, two, or more letters interwoven 
as a cipher or abbreviation of a name, and used in 
seals, coats of arms, etc. 

MonsoonE [Ital. from Arab, — a time or season.] 
The wind that blows over the Indian Ocean from 
the north-east from October to April, and in the 
opposite direction during the rest of the year. 

Month. [AS. monadh, from mona , the moon.] 
The twelfth part of the calendar year—popularly 
the space of four weeks. The calendar month 
has 30 or 31 days, except February, which has 
28, and in a leap year 29 ; the lunar month is 
29 days 12 hrs. 44 min. 2.684 sec ; and the side¬ 
real month is 27 days 7 hrs. 43 min. 11.545 sec. 

Moon. [AS. mona.'] The globe or satellite which 
moves round the earth and reflects the light of 
the sun upon it. In form it is an almost perfect 
sphere of 2,163 miles in diameter, and revolves 
at a mean distance from the earth’s centre of 
238,840 miles. The moon presents as large a 
surface to the eye as the sun, but it is really 
680 


many million times smaller, and looks as large 
only because it is so much nearer. It moves 
round the earth in a nearly circular orbit in a 
little less than a month. The time occupied by 
the moon in passing from one star to the same 
star again is called a sidereal month. For every 
revolution in the moon’s orbit it rotates once on 
its axis, so that one side of the moon is always 
invisible to the earth. At times, however, owing 
to its vibratory motion, we see a little more than 
the side which usually faces the earth. When 
the moon is between the sun and the earth, it is 
invisible, and on becoming visible is called “ the 
new moon,” and when the earth is between the 
moon and the sun, the whole surface becomes 
visible, and in this state we have what is called 
“full moon.” The interval from new moon to 
new moon again—that is, the time occupied by 
the moon in passing from the sun round to the 
sun again—is called the syfiodic month. It is 
longer than the sidereal month, its mean value 
being 29.53 days nearly, and this is the length of 
the ordinary lunar month. From “new” to 
“ full ” the moon increases in apparent size, and 
then begins to decrease in size, until it returns 
to the condition of the new moon. In the phases 
before and after new moon a faint illumination of 
the part not directly lighted up by the sun is 
visible. This is called the “ earth shine,” and is 
due to the reflection of light received from the 
earth. An eclipse of the moon takes place when 
it gets into the shadow of the earth, and an 
eclipse of the sun when the moon comes between 
thdsuu and the earth. To the naked eye the 
surface of the moon presents a mottled appear¬ 
ance, some parts being light and others dark. 
Viewed through a telescope the surface appears 
to be covered with mountains, valleys, and plains, 
like the surface of the earth ; only in the moon 
everything is barren and desolate, like the coun¬ 
try around volcanoes, and there are no seas, lakes, 
or rivers. The harvest moon is the full moon 
that occurs nearest the autumnal equinox (Sept. 
23). (See Eclipse.) 

Moose. The largest of the Deer family, equal in 
size to the horse, and standing very high. Its 
broad antlers weigh from 50 to 70 pounds. It is 
found in northern New England and Canada, and 
closely resembles the elk of Europe. 

Mor'daht. [Fr., from E. mordere , to bite.] A 
substance, such as alum, for making colors firm 
and permanent. In gilding , the size used to 
make gold-leaf adhere. 

Morocco. {Morocco, in North Africa.] A fine 
kind of leather made from goat-skin. It includes 
imitation French kid, brush kid, glazed kid, 
pebbles, straight-grained goat, and oiled goat. 
[See Leather.) 

Mor'tar. [E. mortarium.] Sand with slaked 
lime and water, mixed thoroughly into a paste, 
and put between stones and bricks to fasten them 
together. (See Cement.) 

Mortise. [Fr . mortaise.] A hole or hollow cut in 
one piece of timber to receive the end of another 
piece made to fit, called the tenon. The junction 
of the two pieces is called a mortise-joint , and 




































































































encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


is much used in putting together the frames of 
houses, and in making doors and shutters. 

Mosa ic. [E* musivum opus , mosaic work.] Or¬ 
namental work formed of small pieces of colored 
marble, precious stones, or glass, laid in figures 
or patterns, attached by being bedded in cement. 

Mosquito. [Span., from E. musca , a fly.] A 
species of gnat that abounds in marshes and 
woods, and whose sting is very painful. They are 
very widely distributed, being found in the cold¬ 
est as well as in the hottest countries. A long 
proboscis or sucker projects from the head, with 
several little bristles or lancets sharper than the 
finest needle. These bristles prick the skin, and 
the insects draw up the blood through the pro¬ 
boscis, and a poisonous juice is squirted into the 
wound, which causes great itching, and some¬ 
times a bad sore. It is supposed also that the 
microbe of malaria is thus implanted in the 
blood of man. Mosquitoes feed chiefly on the 
juices of plants, rarely on blood. 

Mosses. ( Musci .) A class of small flowerless 
plants, with simple branching stems and numer¬ 
ous narrow leaves. There are about 3,000 species, 
growing chiefly in cool and rocky regions, and 
also in bogs and swamps. Cold swamps are 
everywhere being filled with sphagnum and 
other mosses, whose remains accumulate, and are 
in time condensed to peat—a valuable fuel where 
wood and coal are scarce. 

Moth. [AS.] An insect like a butterfly, but 
without thickenings on its antennae, seen mostly 
flying about at twilight or during night. There 
are many kinds, and they vary in form, size, and 
color. The clothes-moth, the larvae of which 
cat holes in clothing, carpets, and furs, is among 
the smallest of moths. 

floth / er=of=pearl. The hard, silvery, brilliant 
substance, called nacre, which forms an internal 
layer in several kinds of shells. Most of it is got 
from the shells of the pearl oyster, brought in 
considerable quantities every year from the East 
Indies, South America, and the Pacific Islands, 
and manufactured into knife handles, buttons, 
studs, and ornaments. It is also used in inlaying 
and for papier-mache work. 

Mound Builders. The ancient Indians who 
erected the earth-mounds, so common in the 
Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. They are thought 
to have been the ancestors of some of the present 
tribes, especially those of the Southern States. 

Mouse. [E. musl\ A small and well-known 
quadruped, found in almost all countries, and 
infesting dwelling-houses, granaries, and fields. 
The common house-mouse is a timid and harm¬ 
less animal, but often does much mischief. The 
field-mouse and the harvest mouse are the pests 
of farmers, causing much destruction of growing 
grain. 

MuFlet. [Fr., from E. mullus .] A fish, often 
found in river-mouths and near the coast, which 
eats mud for the organic debris it contains, and 
is highly esteemed as food. The chief kinds are 
the red mullet and the gray mullet. 



MuFberry. [AS.] A genus of trees bearing a 

succulent mass of fruit of 
a purplish-black color and 
fine aromatic flavor. The 
fruit is much esteemed for 
dessert, and a pleasant 
light wine and an excellent 
preserve are made of it. 
The leaves of the mulberry 
are used for feeding silk¬ 
worms. 

Mule. [AS., from E. 
mill us .] An animal which 
is a half-breedb etween the 
male ass and female horse. 
The head, ears, and tail 
resemble those of the ass, 
but in bulk and height the 

MULBERRY LEAF AND WORM. 1 • ,1 , 

mule is nearer the horse. 
It is very sure-footed, and of great value 
for traveling in mountainous countries. Mules 
are largely used as beasts of burden in Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, and Spanish America; and in 
some of the southern States of North America 
they are employed for work on plantations. In 
recent wars mules have been found most useful 
transport animals. 

MuFIion. [Fr. moulure .] The upright bar or 
division between the lights of windows, screens, 
and panels in Gothic architecture. 

MurrPmy. The preserved body of a human being 
or animal. In Egypt the bodies were preserved 
by a process of embalming; and multitudes of 
mummies exist thousands of years old. In 
ancient Peru the same effect was produced by 
sun-drying. Dried bodies are also found in the 
Cliff Dwellings of the Western United States. 

Mus / cle. [Fr., from E. musculus.'] The fleshy 
parts of the body, which have the power of con¬ 
tracting and of moving the joints with which 
they are connected. Muscles are striated and 
voluntary, or non-striated and involuntary. 
They are composed of fibres laid side by side, 
forming bundles, which are attached to the bones 
by tough whitish strings called sinews or tendons. 
The various bones of the body are moved by 
about 400 muscles. 

Mush'room. [Fr. mousseron.'] A fleshy plant 
belonging to the fungi, with a short white stalk 
and a flat or rounded head, umbrella-shaped, 
which grows up in pasture-fields sometimes in a 
single night. Many kinds can be eaten, and 
some are used in making ketchup. 


Musk. [E. muscus.~\ A substance with a strong 
and persistent odor, obtained from the male of 
the musk-deer, which inhabits the mountainous 
parts of Central Asia. Musk is one of the 
strongest of all perfumes, and is much used by 
perfumers. 

Mus / ket. [Fr. mousquet .] The name formerly 
given to the common gun in the hands of sol¬ 
diers, which was then discharged by means of a 
lighted match, but in which a spring-lock is now 
employed. (See Rifle.) 

68-1 








io6 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


Musk=ox. A ruminating animal, between the 
sheep and the ox in character, found in the 
northern parts of America and even in the north¬ 
ernmost part of Greenland. Warmth is obtained 
from its very thick hair. When fat the flesh is 
well flavored, but musky in smell. 

Musk=rat. The name of two distinct species of 
animals, one found only in America, much 
hunted for the sake of its fur, from 
400,000 to 500,000 skins being annu¬ 
ally imported into Britain ; the other 
common in Europe. Both exhale a 
very strong odor of musk. 

Mus / lin. [Fr. mousseline, from 
Mosul in Asiatic Turkey, where this 
cloth was first made.] A fine, thin kind 
of cotton cloth, of a light and soft 
texture, and not woven so compactly 

as calico. 

Mus'sel. [E. musculus .] The name applied to 
several common bivalve shell-fish, of which the 
common sea-mussel is the most important, and 
is largely used as bait for deep-sea fishing. In 


some districts of Europe it is used as an article 
of food. Near Rochelle, in France, there are 
large “mussel farms,” and hundreds of people 
are employed in planting and gathering the 
mussels. 

Mustang. The name given to the small wild 
horses of Texas, California, Mexico, etc. 

Mus / tard. [E. mustum.'] The seeds of the mus¬ 
tard plant ground to powder and used as a sea¬ 
soning for meat. The mustard plant is an annual, 
about 3 feet high, with sweet-smelling yellow 
flowers and seeds in little pods. 

Myrrh. [L .myrrha.~\ A pleasant-smelling gum- 
resin obtained from the sap of the myrrh-tree, 
which grows in Arabia and Abyssinia. It is used 
in medicine as a tonic for disorders of the diges¬ 
tive organs, to cleanse wounds, and as a tooth 
powder when the gums are spongy. 

Myr / tle. [E. myrtus.~\ A tree or evergreen 
shrub, with beautiful white flowers, shining 
leaves, and pleasant .smell. The ancients con¬ 
sidered it sacred to Venus, and her temples were 
surrounded by groves of myrtle trees. 



N 


Nail. [AS. nczgell] A pointed piece of metal, 
with a round or flattened head, used for driving 
into wood or other material for the purpose of 
holding separate pieces together. Formerly 
nails were made by the hand; complicated ma¬ 
chinery is now employed in their manufacture. 
Nails vary in size and shape according to their 
different* uses. They are now usually made of 
wire. 

Nail. The horny scale on the fingers and toes of 
man. (See Hoofs and Claw.) 

NankeenE [ Nankin, in China.] A brownish- 
yellow cotton cloth made from a kind of cotton 
which grows in China. Imitations of this cloth 
are made in Great Britain and America, and are 
dyed yellow instead of being made of the cotton 
of that color. 

Nap. [AS, hnoppa.~\ The soft d®wny surface of 
cloth ; so called because, before it is dressed, it is 
composed of many little loops or knobs, which 
are afterwards cut and smoothed. 

Naph'tha. [Pers. nafata, to exude.] A volatile 
bituminous liquid, of a strong peculiar smell, 
and very easily set on fire. When occurring nat¬ 
urally it is called rock oil or crude petroleum, 
and it is also obtained in the refinement ofpetrol- 
eum. It is used for illumination and to dissolve 
varnishes, etc. Coal naphtha is obtained by the 
distillation of ,coal tar, boghead naphtha from 
coal, and wood naphtha from wood. 

Nap'kin. [Fr. nappe, a tablecloth; and -kin, 
little.] A small cloth ; a cloth used for wiping 
the fingers and mouth at table. 

Narcissus. [Gk . narkissosi] A class of bulbous 
plants to which daffodils belong, cultivated for 
the sake of their fragrant and beautiful cup¬ 
shaped flowers, which possesses narcotic proper¬ 
ties. 

682 


Nar / whal. A marine mammal belonging to the 
Dolphin family, chiefly found in the Arctic seas. 
It is generally from 20 to 30 feet long, and is 
armed with a horny projection from the upper 
jaw, 6 to 10 feet long, and harder and whiter 
than ivory. It has sometimes two of these horns 
or tjusks, but though thus armed is a very peace¬ 
able animal. 

Nasturtium. [E. nasus, the nose ; and torqueo, 
to twist, in allusion to its pungent taste causing 
pain.] A plant cultivated both for ornament and 
use. It is a kind of cress, with white or yellow¬ 
ish flowers and a warm, pungent taste. The 
flowers are used in salads, and the seeds as a sub¬ 
stitute for capers. 

Nautilus. [Gk. nautilos, sailor, or shell-fish 
supposed to have a membrane which served as a 
sail.] A genus of shell-fish having a spiral shell, 
chambered with simple partitions perforated in 
the centre, concave towards the outlet of the 
shell. The outer chamber is the largest, and con¬ 
tains the body of the animal. The head of the 
animal has many simple tapered arms or tentacles. 
Four kinds are found living in the tropical 
Pacific, but there are many fossil kinds. It 
creeps along the bottom of the sea, and does not 
sail on the surface, as was formerly supposed. 

Neb / ula. A vapory patch of seemingly gaseous 
matter seen in the heavens among the stars, and 
sometimes of immense dimensions. Many of 
the supposed nebulae have been shown to be 
clusters of very distant stars, but others are proved 
by the spectroscope to be made up of luminous 
gas. Great numbers of them exist. 

Nee / dle. [AS. ncedl .] The sewing-needle is a 
small instrument of fine steel wire, pointed at 
one end, with an eye at the other to receive a 
thread. In needles for sewing-machines the eye 
is at the pointed end. The magnetic needle is a 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


sma/1 piece of steel, pointed at both ends, and 
used in the mariner’s compass. By its magnetic 
properties it is attracted and directed to the 
poles. 

Nep'tune. The planet most distant from the sun, 
its distance being about 2,746,000,000 miles. Its 
diameter is about 37>3°° ruiles, and its year equals 
164.6 of our years. It has one known satellite, 
which revolves around it in a direction opposite 
to that of the satellites of the other planets. 

Nerves. [L. nervus.'] All the organs of the body 
are connected by nerves—each a bundle of nerve 
fibres enclosed in a special sheath—either with 
a great mass of nervous matter called the brain, 
or with a long thick nerve called the spinal cord, 
which runs down the centre of the back-bone. 
Delicate white threads or nerves pass from the 
brain through little holes in the skull to the ears, 
eyes, nose, mouth, etc. Long but very fine 
nerves extend from the spinal cord to all parts of 
the body. By the nerves sensations or feelings 
are transmitted to the brain. If the nerves going 
from the tip of a finger to the brain are cut, we 
can no longer feel anything with that finger. 
Again, if any part of the skin is touched, the 
sensation passes along a nerve to the spinal cord, 
and then up that great nerve trunk to the brain. 
But the nervous system does more than merely re¬ 
ceive sensations. All the movements of the 
muscles are directed and governed by the nerves, 
and similarly the action of all the other organs 
of the body is under the control of the nervous 
system. 

Net. [AS.] A fabric made of hemp, flax, or jute 
twine, and sometimes of cotton and other materi¬ 
als, worked into open meshes, and used in captur¬ 
ing fish, birds, butterflies, and small quadrupeds. 
Many kinds of nets are used by fishermen, but 
those most in use are the seine, drift, and trawl 
nets. 

Net'tle. [AS. netele.~\ A genus of plants covered 
with extremely fine, sharp hairs, which pierce 
the skin when touched, and inject into the 
wounds an acrid juice, often causing much in¬ 
flammation and pain. The fibre of the nettle is 
very strong, and in some countries it is woven 
into cloth. The stalks and leaves are used in 
some parts of England for the manufacture of 
nettle-beer. 

New'el. The upright post about which the steps 
of a circular staircase wind; hence, in stairs 
having straight flights, the principal post at the 
foot of a staircase, or the secondary ones at the 
landings. 

Newt. Any one of the several species of small 
aquatic salamanders ; but the term is more com¬ 
monly applied to the animals which inhabit 
ponds, wet ditches, and other damp places. 

Nick'd. A metal discovered in 1751. It is of a 
silvery-white color, ductile, malleable, stronger 
than iron, and almost as hard to melt. Nickel is 
found in Russia, Norway, Germany, New Cale¬ 
donia, Canada, and the United States. It does 
not tarnish by exposure to moist air, is very 
susceptible of magnetism, and magnets are made 
of it. Nickel is used for plating other metals, to 


which it gives a beautiful silver-like surface that 
keeps them from rusting. Nickel is used with 
steel wrought into armor plates for warships. 
German silver is an alloy of nickel, copper, and 
zinc, and some white compounds used for small 
coins are similar alloys. 

Night ingale. [AS. nihtegaled\ A small European 
bird, rather larger than thehedge-sparrow,ofa rich 
russet-brown color, and noted for its vocal powers. 
It sings in the evening, and the sweetness of its 
song is celebrated by the poets. 

NUtre. [Fr. nitre. ] Saltpetre. A white crystal¬ 
line salt, of a cooling, slightly bitter taste, unal¬ 
terable in the air, and insoluble in alcohol. It is 
used in the manufacture of gunpowder, in the 
production of nitric acid, in medicine, as a 
fertilizer, and for preserving meat. 

NFtric Acid. The most important oxide of nitro¬ 
gen. Its chemical formula is N2 O5. It forms 
valuable compounds with most of the bases, and 
is useful also for its powerful oxidizing properties. 



STEEL YARD, ALSO CALLED A BALANCE. 


Ni'trogen. [Gk. nitron , nitre; and gennao, I 
produce.] The gaseous element which forms 
nearly four-fifths of the atmosphere. When 
alone or uncombined it does not possess any 
very active properties. I11 the air it serves to 
dilute the oxygen, which by itself would be too 
strong in its effects on life. Nitrogen is a color¬ 
less and transparent gas. It has neither smell 
nor taste, and it will not readily combine with 
other elements. It is very slightly soluble in 
water, and it is neither combustible nor a sup 
porter of combustion, a lighted taper plunged 
into a jar containing nitrogen being at once 
extinguished. It forms many most important 
compounds, such as nitric acid, ammonia, and 
cyanogen. 

Ni / tro=gly / cerine. A liquid appearing like a 
heavy oil, colorless or yellowish, and consisting 
of a mixture of several glycerine salts. It is 
produced by the action of nitric acid on glycerine 
in the presence of sulphuric acid, and is terribly 
explosive. When compounded with siliceous 
earth it forms dynamite , and with wood, lignose. 

Nut. The frnit of certain trees consisting of a 
hard shell enclosing an edible kernel, differing in 
size from the beecli-nut to the cocoanut—a piece 
of metal with a grooved hole, screwed upon the 
end of a screw-bolt. 

Nutmeg. [Nut, and L. muscus , musk.] The 
kernel of the nut of a tree which grows in the 
East Indies, much used in cookery because of 
its pleasant taste and smell. 


683 














io8 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


o 


Oak. [AS.] The name of a noble genus of trees, 
sometimes styled the monarch of the woods. A 
large proportion of forest trees are oaks, of which 
there are about 300 different kinds, spread over 
nearly the whole of the northern hemisphere, 
except the extreme north. Some oaks shed their 
leaves every year, and some are evergreens, and 
the leaves are alternate, but often variously 
lobed. The timber of the oak is hard and tough, 
and has been used from the very earliest times 
as the best material for shipbuilding. It is also 
employed in architecture, cabinetmaking, mill- 
work, and coopering, and the bark is used in 
tanning and dyeing. It bears a well-known nut, 
called the acorn, which is contained in a small 
woody cup. 

Oats. [AS. ate.~\ The grain of a corn-producing 
grass, which differs from wheat and barley in the 
loose arrangement of its spikelets on the stalk, 
forming what is termed a panicle. The oat is a 
hardy plant, well able to bear cold and moisture. 
Oatmeal is largely used in Scotland and in North 
America, and forms a very valuable article of 
food. Oats are excellent food for horses and 
cattle. 

Ob'elisk. A tall, tapering, four-sided pyramid, 
cut off at the top in the form of a flat pyramid. 
Obelisks, made from single stones, of great 
height, stood before the temples of Egypt, their 
sides closely carved with hieroglyphic inscrip¬ 
tions. 

CFcean. The great body of water which occupies 
five-sevenths of the area of the earth’s surface, 
and surrounds all the continents. It is divided 
into the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and 
Antarctic oceans. 

O'celot. A member of the cat family, smaller 
than the leopard and the ounce. It is about 3 
feet long, and is found in America from Texas to 
Brazil, and in Sumatra. It climbs trees and feeds 
on birds and small animals. 

O'chre. [Fr . ocreP\ A fine kind of iron clay, 
either red (hematite) or yellow (limonite), used 
with size for painting. 

Octupus. (See Devil Fish.) 

Oil Well. A well sunk to underground beds of 
petroleum. It consists of iron pipes sunk into the 
earth, following a drill which cuts an opening 
downward. Some of these wells are sunk to a 
great depth, the total number in the whole earth 
reaching probably 100,000. The oil sometimes 
flows out and sometimes is obtained by pumping. 

Oils. [Fr., from F. oleum. ] Greasy substances 
expressed or drawn from various animal, vege¬ 
table, and mineral bodies, as olive oil, whale oil, 
rock oil , etc. They are used for food, for sol¬ 
vents, for anointing, lubrication, illumination, 
etc. The mineral oils are varieties of petroleum. 
The vegetable oils are of two classes— essential 
oils and natural oils , which in general resemble 
the animal oils and fats. Most of the natural oils 
and the animal oils and fats consist of ethereal 
salts of glycerine, with a large number of organic 

684 


acids, principally stearic, oleic, and palmitic, 
forming respectively stearin, olein, andpalmitin. 
Mutton tallow, beef tallow, and lard are rich in 
stearin, human fat and palm oil in palmitin, and 
sperm and codliver in olein. Oils are classified 
according to their properties, and include—(1) 
non-drying oils, as almond, mustard, olive, etc.; 
(2) drying oils, as linseed, walnut, poppy, hemp, 
etc.; (3) train and fish oils, as seal, sperm, whale, 
cod, etc.; (4) vegetable fats, as palm oil, cocoa- 
nut oil, etc.; (5) animal fats, as lard, butter, 
tallow, etc.; and (6) waxes, as palm-tree wax, 
bees-wax, etc. 

OF ive. [F- oliva.A, A tree or shrub with small 
oblong leaves, of which there are several species, 
the most important being the common olive, 
long cultivated in the south of Europe and Asia 
for its fruit. The olive has been much improved 
by cultivation. The oil is used in salads, in the 
arts, and in medicine, and the fruit for dessert 
purposes. Olive wood is very hard and is em¬ 
ployed for cabinet-work. 

OrrFelet or Omelette. [Fr. omelette.~\ A food 
compound, made with eggs beaten up with flour, 
etc., and fried in a pan. 

On / ion. [Fr., from F. unio. ] A genus of plants, 
which includes also the garlic, leek, and shallot. 
The onion is very extensively cultivated, and 
grows best in a rich and rather moist soil. Its 
root bears a round or oblong bulb, widely in use 
as a pot-herb and as a table food. It is very 
nutritious, and easily digested. 

O'nyx. A variety of chalcedony with some re¬ 
semblance to agate. It is made up of alternating 
parallel bands of different colors, and was used by 
the ancients in making cameos, the figures being 
cut in the white layers, while the darker layers 
formed the background. 

CFpal. [F. opalus.~\ A mineral consisting of silica 
with a small admixture of alumina. Precious 
opal presents a fine play of colors, due to its 
great number of minute fissures, and is highly 
esteemed as a gem for setting in rings, brooches, 
and other ornaments. The finest opal comes from 
IHungary and Mexico. Common opal is semi¬ 
transparent, white, yellow, green, red, or brown, 
and has no play of colors. 

Opera=gIass. A small double telescope, with 
concave lenses of low powers, for seeing clearly 
rattier than magnifying objects at no great dis¬ 
tance, such as scenery and buildings, and the 
interiors of operas, theatres, etc. 

O pium. [F. opium , Gk. opion , poppy-juice.] A 
vegetable extract which is the most active of 
all narcotics, and a valuable medicine. It is 
obtained from the dried juice of the opium- 
poppy, which grows wild in many parts of Asia, 
and is now largely cultivated in India, Persia, 
and China, and to a considerable extent in some 
parts of Europe. Much of the opium raised in 
India is sent to China, where it is largely used 
for smoking, with baneful effects. As a medicine 
it lelieves pain, allays irritation of the nervous 
system, and produces sleep. Morphia is the 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


109 


active principle, and the quality of the opium is 
judged by the quantity of morphia it contains. 
Laudanum, a crude preparation of opium in spir¬ 
its of wine, is the form in which opium is very 
largely used. 

Opos'sum. The name of several kinds of marsu¬ 
pial animals, 
found only 
i n America. 
The best 
known is the 
common Vir- 
g i n i a opos¬ 
sum, found 
all over the 
United States. 
In size it is 
about as large 
as a cat, but 
in shape more 
like a rat. It 
has short 
legs, a very 
long tail cov¬ 
ered with 
scales instead 
of hair, ex- 
c e p t at its 
base, and a 
sharp rat¬ 
like nose. In some opossums the pouch is absent. 
In several species the young are carried about on 
the back of their mother, and with their tails they 
cling to her tail, which is curved over her back. 

Or'ange. [Fr. and I tab, from Pers. naranj , with n 
dropped.] An evergreen tropical and semi-tropi¬ 
cal tree, seldom rising above 25 feet in height. 
The fruit is usually round, and consists commonly 
of ten pulpy parts enclosed in a leathery rind. 
The flowers, which are of a delicate white color, 
appear in summer, but the fruit is not ready for 
picking till the following year. Hence flowers 
and fruit in various stages may be seen on the 
trees at the same time. There are numerous 
varieties of the orange, which is cultivated in all 
the warmer regions of the earth. In the United 
States it is raised largely in Florida and Califor¬ 
nia. The blood orange has a reddish juice. The 
mandarin orange is small, is thought to be of 
Chinese origin, and is counted a distinct species. 
The Seville or bitter orange is grown in large 
quantities in Spain, and imported into Great 
Britain and the United States for making mar¬ 
malade. The rind is made into candied orange- 
peel. The leaf, the flower, and the rind of the 
fruit all yield volatile oils. The scent of eau de 
Cologne is due chiefly to oil distilled from the 
orange flower, while the rind of the bergamot 
orange yields essence of bergamot , largely used 
in perfumery. 

Orang / =outang / . [Malayan = man of the woods.] 
An animal of the ape kind, found in Borneo, 
Sumatra, and Malacca. It is over 4 feet high, is 
reddish-brown and closely resembles man in 
many respects. It dwells only in forests, and 
moves rapidly from tree to tree. 


Or'chid. A family of plants, distinguished by the 
singular forms of their flowers, which in some 
cases resemble a bird or an insect. They are 
prized for their beauty, fragrance and singularity. 

Ore. The mineral from which metals are extracted. 
Metals usually exist in combination with oxygen, 
sulphur, or other elements; often with other 
metals. They are extracted from those com¬ 
pounds by the use of heat and various chemical 
processes. 

(Usier. [Fr. osier.'] The popular name of a 
species of willow, the long twigs of which are 
best adapted for basket-making and other wicker¬ 
work. (See Willow.) 

Os / mose. The process which takes place when 
two fluids of different densities are separated by 
an animal membrane or by unglazed earthen¬ 
ware. They pass through the partition and 
mingle with each other, through the action of a 
kind of molecular attraction. 

Os / prey. [U. ossifraga ; os, a bone ; and frango, 
to break.] A bird of the family Falcon idee, the 
bald buzzard, fishing-eagle, or fish hawk, a large 
bird of prey, living upon fish, which it takes by 
darting upon them with great rapidity and true 
aim. 

Os / trich. [Fr., from U. avis, a bird ; and struthio, 
an ostrich.] The largest of all birds, attaining 
an average height of from 6 to 8 feet. It is a 
native of the sandy plains of Africa and Arabia. 
It has long and very strong legs, and only two 
toes, and is remarkable for its speed in running, 
and valued for its feathers. Ostriches live chiefly 
on fruits, grain, leaves, tender shoots, snails, 
and insects. They swallow stones to grind 
their food with in the gizzard, and have been 
known to gulp down pieces of iron, glass, leather, 
and other hard things. An ostrich egg is very 
large, weighing about 3 lbs., and is thus equal to 
about two dozen ordinary hen’s eggs. The shell 
is thick and strong, and is much employed by 
the South African tribes for water-vessels. The 
ostrich is now domesticated in South Africa, and 
bred on farms for its feathers, oil, eggs, etc. 

Ot/ter. [AS. oter .] A genus of carnivorous 
aquatic quadrupeds, included in the Weasel 
family. This animal is larger than others of 
that family, being often 4 feet long, and differs 
from them in living mostly in the water. Its 
paws are webbed for swimming, and its food is 
chiefly fish. Its fur is short, thick, fine, and 
quite handsome. Otters are found in almost all 
parts of the world. The American or Canadian 
otter is most plentiful in Canada, where thou¬ 
sands are killed every year for their furs. 

Owl. [AS. ula.] A raptorial bird that howls or 
hoots at night. The owl has a short, stout form, 
downy feathers, and a large head with a flat face. 
The eyes are round and staring, and have a 
fringe of stiff feathers around them ; and the 
bill is short, strong, and hooked. During the 
day owls hide away in trees, caves, and old 
buildings ; and in the dusk of the evening, when 
they see better than in broad daylight, they fly 
around looking for game. Their food consists 
chiefly of rats, mice, moles, squirrels, and other 

685 






I ro 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


small quadrupeds ; but they sometimes feed on 
other birds, and some of the smaller kinds eat 
moths, beetles, and other insects. They catch 
their prey with their claws, and swallow it whole 
at one gulp. There are many kinds— barn, 
eared, hawk, horned, screech, and snowy owls. 

Ox. [AS. oxa.] The general name for the dif- 



METAL BURNING IN OXYGEN. 


ferent species and varieties of the ruminant 
quadrupeds belonging to the genus Bos. The 
species is distinguished by having smooth, hol¬ 
low, persistent horns, growing on a bony core, 
by having the body thick and heavy, and the tail 
long, terminated by a tuft of hair. 

Oxygen. [Gk. oxus, acid; and gcnnein, to 
make.] A gas without color, taste, or smell, 
forming that part of the air which supports life 
and flame. It is also the principal component 
pait of water. Oxygen readily combines with 
almost every other element. Not only does it 
form about one-fiftli of the atmosphere, but it is 
also found in a great number of solid and liquid 
compounds. It has been estimated that this 
element alone forms about one-half by weight of 
the crust of the earth, being thus the most abun¬ 
dant of all the elements. When we see any sub¬ 
stance burning, we may be certain that what we 
call oxidation is going on—that is, that the 
matter of the coal, or the candle, or the gas, or 
whatever it may be, is combining with the 
oxygen of the air, and in the act of doing so is 
producing heat and light. 

Oys 7 ter. [Fr. huitre, from Gk. ostreon.~\ A genus 
of bivalve molluscs, much esteemed for food. 
Oysters are distributed very widely, and prin¬ 
cipally in the seas of warm and temperate 
climates. They are found on gravel and sand, in 
estuaries, and on the sea-coast, sometimes at¬ 
tached to rocks, trees, etc., at depths varying 
from the surface to seventeen fathoms. (See 
Claims.) 

O'zone. [Gk. ozein, to smell.] A gaseous sub¬ 
stance obtained from oxygen ; so named from its 
peculiar odor, which resembles that of weak 
chlorine. 


P 


Pace. [Fr., from P. passus, a step.] The distance 
passed over in walking one step, estimated at 2 'A 
feet, but in measuring distances by stepping it is 
extended to 3 feet. 

Pad'lock. A hanging lock with a clasp which 
turns on a hinge at one end, and, passing through 
a staple or link, receives the bolt through an 
opening in its other end. 

Paint. [Fr., from P. pingere, to paint.] All paints 
are made up of the substance w T hich gives the 
color, usually called the pigment, and that with 
which the color is mixed. Pigments are mostly 
made from minerals, but some are got from 
vegetables and some from animals. Paints are 
mixed either with oil or water, and are therefore 
called oil-paints or water-colors. Oil-paints are 
usually mixed with linseed oil, but sometimes 
some kinds of nut oils are used. Water colors 
are mixed with water and a little glue or gum. 

Palan'quin. A covered litter used in China, India, 
etc., borne on the shoulders of men. 

PaFette. [Fr., from P. paletta, dim. of pala, a 
spade or shovel.] A little thin, oval board, or 
slab of ivory or porcelain, on which a painter 
mixes his colors, and which he holds by a thumb 
at one end. 

686 


Palm. [P. palmal\ The name of about 1,000 
species of plants growing in warm climates. 
Their stems are erect and slender, often lofty, 
and generally without branches, crowned at the 
summit with a tuft of large radiating leaves. 
Most of them are noted for the variety and utility 



palanquin. 

of their products. (See Cocoa ; Date.) 
Palmetto. The common name of the palm trees 
which grow in the southern United States. There 














































encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


are several kinds, but the cabbage palmetto, 
extensively cultivated in the south-eastern States, 
is the principal one. It grows to a height of from 
20 to 30 feet. Its leaves are used for thatching 
buildings, and for making hats, baskets, mats, 
etc. . As the ship-worm does not attack its wood, 
the timber is used for wharves and other wood¬ 
work under water. 

Pam'pas Grass. A tall grass which covers much 
of the pampas, or great plains of South America. 
Its leaves, 6 or 8 feet long, hang gracefully over, 
while from the centre arises the flower-stems, 10 
to 14 feet high. It is much cultivated in the north 
as an ornamental plant. 

Pan'nser . [Fr., from E- panarium , a breadbas¬ 
ket.] A wicker basket ; one of a pair of baskets 
slung over a horse’s back, for carrying fruit or 
other light articles. 

Pan'sy. [Fr. pensee .] A name applied to the vari¬ 
eties of Viola tricolor , etc., cultivated in gardens 
under the name of heart's-ease. (See Violet.) 

Pantaloon'. One of the chief actors in a panto- 
mine, who plays the part of a clown. He dresses 
in wide, long, garments—a kind of close long 
trousers, worn by males, extending from the 
waist to the feet. 

Pan'ther. [Gk. panther .] A fierce flesh-eating 
African quadruped of the size of a large dog, 
spotted like a leopard, but darker in color. The 
Puma is often called the American Panther. 
(See Leopard.) 

Pan'tomine. A theatrical exhibition in w T hich 
there is no conversation, the plot being indicated 
by gestures and scenic effect. Its characters are 
taken by adepts in mimicry and gesticulation. 

PapawE A small fruit tree of the south and south-, 
west United States. Its fruit is a pod 3 or 4 
inches long and an inch thick, with two rows of 
large flat seeds. It has a yellow skin when ripe, 
and looks something like a banana. Its flesh is 
softer and sweeter than the banana. 

Pa'per. [E. papyrus .] Paper may be described 
as thin layers of fine vegetable fibre. It is made 
from the following materials : linen and cotton 
rags, refuse flax and hemp, jute, esparto grass, 
straw, soft wood, and waste paper. In Amer¬ 
ica so considerable a quantity of wood is used 
that it is said the spruce is being depleted from 
many forests for this purpose. Esparto grass 
which grows in the s outli of Spain and the 
north of Africa, is the staple fibre used in Britain 
in the production of machine-made printing and 
ordinary writing-paper. Writing and printing 
papers can be made on the same machine, but 
their composition and character are totally differ¬ 
ent. Printing-papers require to be compara¬ 
tively soft, open, and spongy, so as to absorb the 
ink freely ; whereas writing-papers require to be 
stiff, hard, and non absorbent. The best writing- 
paper is made wholly from rags, but very good 
is made from combinations of rags, wood, straw, 
or esparto. Names or devices or water-marks 
are put on the paper while it is traveling, in the 
form of half moist pulp, upon the “ wire ’ of the 
paper-making machine. A light spider-ringed 
roll,covered with wire-gauze, and having the 


name or device projecting from its surface, is 
made to revolve upon the top of the pulp, leav¬ 
ing its stamp or impression upon it ; the water 
at the same moment being immediately with¬ 
drawn, leaves the depression permanent, and 
thus water-marks are simply thin portions of the 
sheet, varying in outline as letter or device 
stamps itself upon the pulp on the machine. 
The webs of paper from the machine are then 
cut into sheets of different length and width as 
required, and examined for imperfections. Tlio. 
recent development of book illustration requires 
a highly-finished paper, which is passed through 
a slight mist or fine spray and then run through 
a super calender. Writing-paper is glazed under 
heavy pressure between sheets of copper or zinc. 

Pap'ief=ma'che. \Vr. papier, paper ; and mache, 
mashed or chewed.] Paper mashed into pulp, 
and after being mixed with size or glue formed 
into various shapes by molds—as tea-boards, trays, 
and ornamental articles—and japanned when dry. 

Par'achute. [Fr. parer , to guard; a , against; 
and chute , a fall.] An instrument in the form of 
an umbrella, which enables a person, by its 
resistance to the air, to drop down safely from a 
balloon. 

Par'affin. Fr., from L,. parum, little ; and affi.nis, 
related to.] A white substance of the nature of 
wax. It is got from shale, coal-tar, petroleum, 
etc., and is unattacked (hence its name) by such 
powerful oxidizing agents as nitric and chloric 
acid. The lighter and more volatile portions of 
petroleum are used as solvents for gums, fats, 
resins, etc.; and the less volatile portions are 
used for illuminating and for lubricating, or are 
converted into vaseline or paraffin wax, from 
which candles are made. 

Parch'ment. [Fr., from E. pergamena ; Perga- 
mos , in Asia Minor, where it was first made about 
b.c. 190.] The skin of a sheep or goat dressed and 
prepared for writing on. Parchment used for 
covering drums is made from the skins of asses, 
calves, or wolves, those of wolves being the best. 

Par'rot. [Fr. perroquet.~\ The type of a large 
group of tropical birds, of numerous species, 
noted for their beautiful color and powerful 
hooked and projecting bill, which is used for 
crushing seeds and fruits. Parrots use their bills 
as well as their claws in climbing trees, and use 
their feet to carry food to their mouths. Those 
usually kept as pets are the South American 
parrot, and the gray parrot, with scarlet tail, from 
West Africa. The latter is noted for its tame¬ 
ness, mischievousness, and power of imitating 
sounds. It is easily taught to whistle and to 
speak. Parrots live to a great age, instances 
being on record of these birds attaining an 
age of seventy or more years. 

Pars'ley. [Fr., from Gk. petros, rock ; and 
selinon , a kind of parsley.] An aromatic herb, 
with finely-divided leaves, used for seasoning 
soups and for dressing dishes. It is a native of 
the south of Europe. 

Pars'nip or Pars'nep. [E- pastinaca.'] An aro- 
, matic herb, cultivated for the sake of its root, 
which resembles a carrot, and is highly nutritious. 

68 7 





I I 2 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


The flesh of cattle fed on parsnips is excellent, and 
the butter of dairy cows fed on them is superior to 
that produced by other kinds of winter feeding. 

Partridge. [Fr., from Gk. perdix.~\ A family 
of birds which includes also the quail. The 
common or gray partridge is found throughout 
Europe. Its flesh is much liked, and the bird is 
the delight of the sportsman. The red-legged 
partridge of southern Europe is found also in 
Asia. In the United States the quail is often 
called by the name of partridge. The partridge 
of New England is the ruffled grouse ; the spruce 
partridge is the Canada grouse. 

Pas'sion =flower. A beautiful climbing plant, 
remarkable for the elegance and singular form of 
its flowers, which resemble “ a crown of thorns.” 
The roots and leaves are noxious, and are used 
in medicine. 

Pea. [AS., from E. pisum, a pea.] A garden and 
field plant of many varieties, with a papiliona¬ 
ceous or butterfly flower, and fruit in a legume 
or pod. It is supposed to belong to the south of 



THE OSTRICH. 

Europe, and has been cultivated in the East from 
remote antiquity. It is now one of the most 
common of garden plants, and is largely grown 
by market-gardeners, who find it a most profit¬ 
able crop. As an article of food peas are very 
valuable, containing a large percentage of casein , 
which is a flesh-forming principle. 

688 


Peach. [Fr., from E. Persicus = Primus Persica , 
the Persian tree.] A well-known tree and its 
fruit, a native of Persia, largely cultivated 
throughout Europe and the United States. The 
peach tree is of medium size, with finely-serrated 
leaves and beautiful flowers, which appear before 
the leaves and diffuse an agreeable odor. The 
fruit is one of the most exquisite and delicious 
of temperate climates. In several of the United 
States there are immense orchards of peaches, 
and large quantities are sent to the northern 
markets, while the canning and drying of the fruit 
form an important industry. 

Pea'cock. [AS., E. pavo y a peacock.] One of 
the most beautiful of birds, of a nature similar to 
the pheasant, with a tail of very long, bright 
feathers. It is elegant in form and graceful in its 
movements, with a splendid crest or tuft on the 
head, while the feathers of its tail are of an emer¬ 
ald green, purple and gold, studded with richly- 
shaded eye-like markings, and are capable of 
erection. The female birds are smaller, and 
not nearly so handsome, being of a sombre 
brownish plumage, and presenting a striking 
contrast to the brilliant appearance of their 
mates. The cry of the peacock is very harsh 
and loud. Wild peacocks are still plentiful in 
many parts of India, and in Java, Sumatra, 
etc., and in these places hunting them forms 
a favorite amusement of the sportsman. The 
feathers of the peacock are used for trimming 
clothes and fans, and for ornamental brushes. Its 
flesh was eaten in ancient times. The Romans 
used to think it a great delicacy, and the emper¬ 
ors had dishes served at their feasts made entirely 
of the brains and tongues of peacocks. But pea¬ 
cocks are not much eaten now, as their flesh is 
not so good as that of the turkey and other fowls. 

PeaTiut. The fruit of a leguminous plant grow¬ 
ing in warm countries—also called ground nut 
and earth nut. The plant is a trailing vine, with 
small yellow flowers. After the flowers fall the 
stem lengthens, bends downward, and the seed- 
pod oil its end forces itself into the ground, 
where it ripens. Peanuts are raised in immense 
quantities in western Africa, South America, and 
the southern United States. They are used for 
food, and yield an oil resembling olive oil. 

Pear. [AS., from E. pints , a pear-tree.] The 
pear-tree is very largely cultivated for the sake 
of its fruit. The tree grows wild in many parts 
of Europe, and is now cultivated in all temperate 
climates. It sometimes attains a height of 40 
feet, with a trunk from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. 

I he varieties of pears are very numerous, and 
though many of them are of little consequence, 
more than two hundred at the present day are 
enumerated as fit for the table, and new varieties 
are being added every year. Pears are preserved 
by canning, like peaches. The wood of the pear- 
tiee is hard, fine-grained, of a yellowish color 
and susceptible of a brilliant polish. It is largely 
used by turners, and sometimes dyed black and 
used by cabinet-makers for ebony. 

Pearl. [O.E .perle.~\ A white, hard, smooth, shining 
substance, found in some shell-fish, especially in 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


the pearl-oyster, river-mussel, and certain uni¬ 
valves. It is highly valued for its beauty, and 
used as a jewel. The shells are lined with a 
secretion of extremely thin semi-transparent 
films, and in due time layers of considerable 
thickness are formed, which gradually harden 
into the material known by the name of nacre , 
or mother-of-pearl. Besides the pearl lining of 
the shells, rounded portions of nacre or mother- 
of-pearl are found in the flesh of the oyster. 
These are supposed to be formed by the intrusion 
of. some foreign body, such as a grain of sand, 
around which layers of nacre are deposited one 
after another, as many as from ten to twelve 
round pearls of different sizes being often found 
within one shell. The best pearls are found off 
the coast of Ceylon, in the Persian Gulf, on the 
coast of Australia, and on the Pacific coast of 
America. The pearl-fisliing season lasts from 
four to six weeks. A fleet of about 250 boats is 
engaged in the fishery, each boat having a crew 
of thirteen men and ten divers, five of the latter 
being employed in diving whilst the other five 
are resting. The work is done very rapidly, as 
the divers cannot remain much more than a 
minute under water. Each diver is let down 
from the boat by a rope, weighted with a stone. 
The usual depth is from 60 to 70 feet. The most 
valuable pearls are those which are perfectly 
round ; but these are very scarce, and secure high 
prices. They are used to form the centre of 
necklaces. Pearls have been prized as articles of 
decoration and ornament in all ages of the 
world. Cleopatra is said to have owned two 
very large and beautiful ones. Many splendid 
pearls are owned by the different crowned heads 
of Europe ; but the Shah of Persia is said to have 
the finest. 

Peat. [For beat; AS. betan, to make better , to 
mend (a fire). Same root as better .] A vegetable 
substance found amidst much moisture, as in 
marshes and morasses, and made up of roots, 
stems, and fibres in every stage of decomposition. 
When cut and dried it is often used for fuel in 
many places where wood and coal are scarce. 
The use of peat as fuel in the distillation of 
Scotch whiskey gives it its peculiar flavor. Char¬ 
coal made from compressed peat is superior to 
wood charcoal, and is capable of being used for 
smelting iron. 

Pec / cary. A11 American animal allied to the hog, 
but smaller. There are two species. One—about 
3 feet long—extends from Arkansas to Patagonia, 
the other from Central America to southern 
Brazil. The latter is extremely pugnacious and 
its herds are dangerous to meet. Even the 
jaguar retires before several of these animals 
banded together. 

PeFican. [E- pelicanus.'] A large web-footed 
water-bird, remarkable for its long, large, flat¬ 
tened bill, to which is attached a bag or pouch 
for holding the fish taken for food. Pelicans 
live along the shores of seas, lakes, and livcis. 
They hover over the water in search of prey, and 
plunge upon it when it appears, storing it in 
their pouch until it is full, when they go to some 

44 


113 

lonely place to bring it out at leisure to eat or to 
feed their young. Pelicans are natives of the 
eastern parts of Europe, and of many parts of 
Asia and Africa. The American white and brown 
pelicans abound on the Florida coast in winter, 
but breed on the North American lakes. 

Pen. [L. penna, a feather.] An instrument for 
writing with a fluid ink. I11 ancient times, pens 
were made out of reeds ; but after paper came 
into use they were made from quills, generally 
those of the goose and swan, and for extremely 
fine writing those of the crow. The manufacture 
of pens from steel was commenced about the be¬ 
ginning of the nineteenth century. Machinery is 
now largely used in the manufacture of pens, 
but the finer qualities are finished by hand labor. 
An ordinary steel pen has to go through some 
sixteen different processes ; while the gold pen, 
which is incorrodible with ink, and very largely 
manufactured in the United States, goes through 
no less than forty-five different processes. 

PerUcil. [E. pejiicillus , a small tail or brush.] A 
pointed strip of black lead, colored chalk, or slate, 
usually enclosed in a slight rod of wood, for 
drawing and writing ; but the term is also applied 
to small hair brushes used by artists, and it was 
to these that the name was originally given. 
The best lead pencils are now made in the United 
States, the purest black lead or plumbago being 
found there. The wood used for pencils is in¬ 
variably that of the Virginia or Florida cedar. 
Colored pencils are prepared by the use of various 
chalks instead of graphite. The chalk is reduced 
to powder, mixed with a little hot melted wax, 
and then pressed and cut into strips of the size 
required. Slate pencils are thin strips of slate 
cut out and afterwards rounded. The strips are 
sometimes cut very thin and put into wood 
casings like lead pencils. 

Pen'dulum. [E- pendulus .] An instrument con- 

si s t i 11 g of a 
weight sus¬ 
pended from a 
fixed point, 
and free to 
swing to and 
fro by the 
alternate force 
of momentum 
and gravity. 
It is used to 
regulate the 
move m e 111 s 
of clock-work 
and other ma¬ 
chinery. The 
principal kinds 
in common use 
are—the sim¬ 
ple, the com¬ 
pound, the 
mercury, and the gridiron pendulums. 

PerUguin. A genus of swimming birds included 
in the Auk family. Penguins exist in large 
numbers in the Antarctic seas, and along the 
southern coasts of Africa and South America. 

689 





PENDULUM. PENDULUM. PKNDUU.’JL PEN DC LEM. 





































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


1 x 4 


Their front wings, which are without true quills, 
are too short for flight, and are used as fins or 
paddles in swimming under water. On shore 
these birds present a singular appearance, stand¬ 
ing erect in long regular lines, resembling files 
of soldiers. The plumage of the neck is valued 
for collars and tippets, and large numbers are 
slaughtered annually. 

Pen / ny. [AS.] An English coin, formerly of cop¬ 
per, now of bronze, worth one-twelfth ofa shilling. 
In the New Testament a silver coin of the value of 
about 7JS^d. In the United States the name penny 
is often given to the cent, a coin of half the 
value. 

Pennyroyal. A kind of mint found in Europe 
and very fragrant. The United States pennyroyal 
is not a mint, but its scent is like that of the Eu¬ 
ropean plant and it has the same uses. A tea is 
sometimes made from it, and its oil is used to 
drive away flies and mosquitoes. 

Pepper.- [AS., from L. piper.^ A common kind 
of spice, the dried berry of a climbing shrub 
which grows wild in the East Indies, but is now 
cultivated in most hot countries. The peppers of 
Malacca, Java, and especially of Sumatra, are the 
most esteemed. The berries are about as large as 
peas, and grow in clusters of twenty or thirty, 
somewhat like a bunch of currants, each berry 
containing a single seed. Cayenne pepper, first 
brought from Cayenne, in South America, is 
made from the pod of the capsicum plant, an en¬ 
tirely different kind of shrub from that which 
bears black pepper. The pod is green at first, but 
bright scarlet when ripe, and this gives the pep¬ 
per its red color. 

Peppermint. A small herb, of a strong spicy 
odor, much used for flavoring. This, with the 
spearmint and the pennyroyal, is used in medi¬ 
cine for its stimulant and carminative properties. 
Others of the mint family are the horse-mint, the 
brook-mint and the corn-mint, the latter smelling 
like decayed cheese. 

Pep / sin. [Gk. pepsis , cooking ; peptein, to digest.] 
The active agent in the gastric juice of many ani¬ 
mals. For use in drugs it is obtained from the 
glandular layers of pigs’ or calves’ stomachs. 

PeranUbulator. An instrument for measuring 
distances, made up of a wheel with an apparatus 
of clock-work, and a dial-plate upon which the 
distances traveled are shown by an index ; also 
the name given to a child’s carriage, pushed for¬ 
ward by a person walking. 

Perch. [Fr., from Gk. perkel\ The name of 
several species of fishes of the genus Perea, fre¬ 
quenting the fresh waters and coasts of temperate 
and tropical regions. The fresh-water perch is 
widely distributed in lakes, ponds, and rivers in 
Europe, Asia, and North America. It is greenish 
yellow on the back, and bright yellow on the 
sides, which are marked with from five to seven 
blackish bands. The perch is very voracious, 
devouring smaller fishes, insects, worms, etc. 
It can exist out of water fora considerable time. 

PerTumes. [Fr., from L. per, through; and 
fumare, from fumus, smoke.] Scents made 
from sweet-smelling substances. They are ob¬ 

690 


tained chiefly from plants, but some are got 
from animals. Vegetable perfumes are made 
from flowers, herbs, spices, seeds, gums, certain 
fruits and nuts, and various woods. Perfumes of 
animal origin are obtained from the musk, am¬ 
bergris, civet, and castor. Dry perfumes, such 
as incense and sachet powders, are simply gums, 
resins, dried herbs, etc., pounded or ground to 
powder. Liquid perfumes are mostly distilled 
from the different parts of plants. Such per¬ 
fumes are called essential oils. But the perfumes 
made from flowers, such as are used on the hand¬ 
kerchief, are mostly made, not by distillation, but 
by maceration and absorption. 

Periwinkle. [AS. pinezvincla.'] A sea-snail or 
small shell-fish, found in abundance between 
tide-marks on rocks or adhering to sea-weeds. 
Periwinkles feed on sea-weeds, and are often col¬ 
lected and boiled in their shells, from which they 
are afterwards extracted and used for food.—Also 
a trailing herb of the genus Vinca. 

Per'ry. The fermented juice of pears, prepared 
in the same way as cider, and used as a beverage. 

Persim'mon. A tree bearing a small, rounded 
fruit in the United States; also in Japan. The 
fruit is yellow and pulpy, and when unripe is 
highly astringent, but is sweet and palatable 
after being frosted. A kind of liquor is made 
from persimmons. 

Pet/re! . [Perhaps from the apostle Peter’s walk¬ 
ing on the sea.] 
A genus of sea¬ 
birds allied to 
the gulls. The 
best-known spe- 
cies is the 
stormy petrel, 
well known to 
seamen as 
Mother Carey’s 
chicken. The 
appearance o f 
these birds i s 
considered t o 
presage a storm, 
and they are 
often seen dur- 
i 11 g storms a t 
sea skimming over the surface of the water as if 
walking on it. Their food consists of small ma¬ 
rine animals and seeds of sea-weeds, and they 
appear fond of fat or grease, for which they will 
follow in the wake of ships for great distances. 

Petroleum. [L., from Gk. petra, a rock; and 
oleum, oil.] Rock-oil, an inflammable liquid 
which exudes from the earth in various parts of 
the world. Petroleum has been known since the 
most ancient times, but it is only recently that 
its importance as a commercial production has 
been discovered. It is found in great quantities 
in the United States and at Baku, Russia, and in 
smaller quantities in several other countries. 
The oil is generally got by sinking deep holes, 
called wells, into the earth. In some of these 
wells the oil rises up and flows over, being forced 
out by a kind of gas ; but in others the oil has to 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


be pumped out. In the oil-region in Pennsyl¬ 
vania there are now several thousand wells, some 
of which are more than a thousand feet deep. 
There is always a good deal of what is known as 
natural gas associated with petroleum. This gas 
is made up of carbon and hydrogen, and burns 
very brightly. It is carried in pipes to neighbor- 
ing towns and used for domestic and manufac¬ 
turing purposes. At one time Pittsburg used 
500,000,000 cubic feet daily in its factories and 
houses. 

The oil from the wells flows into large tanks, 
from which it is carried in iron pipes to the 
shipping places and places where it is to be re¬ 
fined or purified. There are more than two 
thousand miles of these pipes laid in the Penn¬ 
sylvania oil-region, and they reach from there to 
Philadelphia. At the refineries the oil is distilled 
and separated into oil for illuminating purposes, 
commonly called kerosene oil ; naphtha, used in 
making oil-cloths, and sometimes as a burning 
fluid; benzine, used in making paints and var¬ 
nishes ; gasolene, used for making gas and for 
mixing with coal gas. (See Naphtha and 
Paraffin .) 

Pew / ter. [Ital. peltroP\ A common and very 
useful alloy, consisting mainly of lead and tin, 
improved in hardness and color by the addition 
of a little antimony, bismuth, and zinc. Britannia 
metal is a kind of pewter, made of tin and anti¬ 
mony, with a little zinc and copper. It is harder 
than common pewter, has a very fine silver¬ 
looking appearance, and is largely used for mak¬ 
ing tankards, coffee-pots, tea-pots, soup-tureens, 
and other table dishes. 

Pheasant. [L. phasianus.~\ The name of a 
family of birds, natives of Asia. The common 
pheasant, has been domesticated, but not success¬ 
fully in this country. Some species are remark¬ 
able for their great beauty of plumage. 

Phlox. A very ornamental North American genus 
of plants, bearing handsome flowers, of which 
many attractive varieties have been produced by 
the florist. 

Phoe / nix. A fabulous bird of antiquity, eagle-like 
in form, and with gold and crimson plumage. It 
was said to live 500 years in the desert, then 
return to Egypt and build a nest. In this it was 
consumed, and a new bird sprang from its ashes. 
The word is now used in a metaphorical sense, to 
indicate the springing of the new from the old. 

Phonograph. [Gk. phone , a sound ; and graph- 
ein, to write.] The phonograph, invented by 
Mr. Edison in 1877, is an instrument which 
mechanically records and reproduces articulate 
human speech, song, etc. Speaking in front of 
this instrument, a thin iron plate having a blunt 
steel point or pen fixed at its centre is made to 
made to vibrate ; the steel point by means of an 
ingenious mechanism, chronicles the vibratory 
movements by indenting a sheet of tin-foil, wax, 
or paraffin, with which it is brought into con¬ 
tact. The slip thus marked is then removed, 
and may be sent to any distance, or kept for a 
number of years, when it has only to be placed 
on a similar phonograph, and the operations 


115 

reversed, in order to produce similar vibrations, 
which exactly reproduce the voice and the 
words originally spoken. The message can be 
read off as often as desired, until the indenta¬ 
tions are worn out. 

Phosphate rock. A mineral, of organic origin, 
found in South Carolina and Florida, and to a 
smaller extent in other parts of the world. It is 
dug up and ground, and used for a fertilizer, it 
being rich in fertilizing properties. 

Phosphorus. [Gk. phos , light; and phoros , 
bringing.] A yellowish element resembling fine 
wax, wliich must be preserved under water. It 
is easily set on fire, and gives out a faint light in 
the dark. It is used for the tips of matches. It 
is found in the seeds of plants and in the nerves, 
bones, and other parts of the animal body. 
Phosphate of lime is abundant in bones, and 
from these phosphorous is now obtained. 

Photography. [Gk. phos, light; and graphein, 
to write.] The science or art of taking repre¬ 
sentations of objects by the action of light on a 
prepared surface. The surface, consisting of 
metal, glass, paper, or other suitable substance,, 
is prepared by being coated with collodion or 
gelatine, and sensitized with the chlorides, 
bromides, or iodides of silver, or other salts 
sensitive to light. The picture obtained in the 
camera by means of exposing one or other of 
these sensitive surfaces to the light cannot be 
seen when the plate is removed, but by pouring 
over it a mixture of ferrous sulphate or pyrogallic 
acid it comes out little by little. This is called 
developing the picture. Any excess of unchanged 
sensitive salt is then dissolved off with sodium 
hyposulphite or other suitable reagents, and in 
this way the negative image is fixed, from which 
any number of positive prints may be taken, 
which are washed, toned, fixed, and then 
mounted.— Photogravure, a print from a copper 
or steel plate. The picture is produced on the 
plate by photography, and bitten in with acid 
instead of engraving.— Photo-lithograph , a litho¬ 
graphic picture or copy from a stone prepared by 
the aid of photography. 



Photom / eter. An instrument for measuring the 
relative intensity of light, or for comparing the 
intensity of two lights. The unit is the light of 
a candle. The incandescent electric light is 
measured in this way, and the glass bulbs are 
marked 8-12-16-32 candle power. 

691' 





























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON TILINGS 


116 

Phy / salia. The Portuguese man-of-war, a singular 
ocean animal, consisting of a pear-shaped air-sac, 
with a handsome crest, which floats on the 
surface, and from which depend a large number 
of long tentacles. The sac is 3 or 4 inches long, 
and some of its tentacles are 30 feet long. 

Fhy' sics. The class of sciences which include 
the forces or properties of matter and motion, as 
electricity, magnetism, light, heat, and gravita¬ 
tion. 

Pianoforte. A musical instrument consisting of 
a number of tightened wires of different lengths 
and thicknesses, struck with small hammers 
worked by keys; so called because it can pro¬ 
duce both soft and loud tones. 

Pig'eon. [Fr.] A genus of birds found in all 
parts of the world, there being nearly 500 differ¬ 
ent kinds. Their wings are strong, and they can 
fly great distances. The wild pigeon, or passen¬ 
ger pigeon , is about the size of a turtle-dove, 
but with a long wedge-like tail. There are 
numerous varieties produced by domestication, 
including the fantail , the tumbler, the pouter, 
etc. One of the most important of these is the 
carrier pigeon, which is capable of flying long 
distances at rapid speed. These birds are noted 
for their love of home, and they will find their 
way back even when taken hundreds of miles 
away. For this reason they have been used from 
the most ancient times for carrying letters, and 
it is from this that they get their name. 

Pike, The common name of a family of well- 
known fresh-water fish, abundant in the tem¬ 
perate parts of Europe, Asia, and America. 
They are strong fish, rapid swimmers, and the 
most voracious of fresh-water fishes, living mostly 
on other fish. They possess a long, sharp jaw or 
snout, which is like a pike or spear. The com¬ 
mon pike occurs in the rivers of Europe and 
North America, and is accounted exceedingly 
wholesome. 

Pil'chard or Sardine. A fish resembling the her¬ 
ring, but smaller, thicker, and rounder, found in 
abundance off the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, 
England. Most of the pilchards landed there are 
salted and sent to Spain, Italy, and France. They 
are packed in hogsheads, each containing about 
3,000 fishes, and from 12,000 to 15,000 hogsheads 
are annually exported. 

Pile. [AvS. from L,. pilum, a pike.] A large 
pointed log of wood driven into the earth to sup¬ 
port the foundations of a building, or used in 
engineering operations, such as making drains, 
bridges, and roads. Piles are driven into the 
ground by machines called pile-drivers, worked 
usually by steam. A heavy weight is raised to a 
considerable height between two tall posts, and 
then let fall on the head of the pile. 

Pin. Pins were formerly made by hand, and the 
heads were put on separately, but solid-headed 
pins are now made by machines. The pin- 
machine, an American invention, patented in 
England in 1824, makes the whole pin without 
any help from the workman. Ordinary pins are 
made of wire, of the thickness required. Black 


pins are made by boiling brass pins in japan 
varnish instead of with tin. 

Pine. [AS. pin, from L,. pinus.~\ The name of a 
family of cone-bearing trees, found in Europe, 
Asia, and America, growing chiefly in moun¬ 
tainous or other exposed situations. Their leaves 
are needle-shaped, growing in clusters or in pairs, 
and surrounded with little scales at their base. 
The most important species is the American 
white pine, widely used in carpentry from the 
softness and ease of working of its timber. Other 
species are the red Canadian pine, the yellow 
pine, the nut pine, the sugar pine, and the pitch 
pine. Under this name are sometimes included 
spruces, firs, larches, and true cedars {q. v.). 

Pine=apple. The fruit of a plant of the same 
name, a native of tropical America, now largely 
cultivated in most hot countries. The plant has 
many long, stiff, sharp-pointed leaves, from the 
middle of which grows a short stem bearing a 
single fruit, in shape like the cone of a pine. 
Pine-apples are sent from the West Indies and 
Azores to all parts of the world, and are much 
valued as a fruit for dessert and for preserving. 
A spirituous liquor called pine-apple rum is made 
from the juice of the pine-apple in some warm 
countries. The leaves of the plant contain fine 
fibres or threads, from which is made the beauti¬ 
ful pine-apple cloth. This is largely manufac¬ 
tured in the Philippine Islands. 

Pink. [Dianthus =the flower of Jove, or God’s 
own flower.] The garden pinks and carnations, 
so varied in form and coloring, are supposed to 
have descended from a single species, known in 
Europe as clove pink, a native of the southern 
Alps. There are now nearly 400 varieties. The 
roots are annual or perennial, the stems herbace¬ 
ous and jointed, bearing a pair of opposite, lin¬ 
ear, apparently veinless leaves at each joint. 
The flowers have peculiar grace and fragrance. 
The carnation and picotee are modifications of 
the clove pink. 

Pin'nace. [Fr., from L,. pinus, a pine tree.] A 
small ship, having sails and oars, used as a tender 
to a larger vessel, and chiefly employed to obtain 
intelligence and to land men ; also a man-of- 
war’s boat. 

Pipe. [AS.] A tube made of various materials— 
as earthenware, wood, metal, leather, gutta¬ 
percha, etc.—for the conveyance of water, steam, 
gas, or other fluid; used for a great variety of 
purposes in the arts and in domestic economy. 
Tobacco-pipes, used in smoking tobacco, usually 
take the form of a bowl and connecting tube, 
and are made of baked clay, porcelain, stone, 
meerschaum, wood, and various metals. Meer¬ 
schaum pipes are beautifully carved. Pipe-stems 
are made of cane, and of cherry, elder, jasmine, 
and other woods; mouth-pieces are usually of 
bone, amber, ivory, and sometimes of silver. 
(See Meerschaum..) 

Pistol. [Fr., from Ital. Pistola, a town in Italy, 
now Pistojal) A small fire-arm that can be held 
in one hand while being fired ; said to have been 
first made at Pistoja. (See Revolver.) 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


117 


Pis'ton. [hr., from R. pislus, pinsere , to beat. 
Same root as pestle .] A solid piece of metal or 
other material, in the form of a short cylinder, 
attached to a rod called the piston-rod , which in 
its turn is attached to the adjoining machinery. 
It is made to fit exactly the cavity of a pump, 
tube, or other cylindrical space, in which it works 
up and down alternately, and is employed in forc¬ 
ing some gas or liquid into or out of the tube 
which it fills, as in steam-engines, fire-engines, 
and pumps (q.v.). 

Pitch. [R. pix.\ A thick, black, sticky sub¬ 
stance got by boiling down tar, used for coating 
ropes, canvas, etc., and by sliip-builders for fill¬ 
ing up the seams and coating the outsides of 
ships and boats. 

Plaice. (L . Platessa.) A common flatfish, somewhat 
like a flounder. The sides of the body are more 
compressed than in other fishes. It is caught in 
large quantities in European waters as a food 
fish. 

Plane=tree. [Fr., from R. platanus .] A tall 

spreading tree, with broad leaves shaped like an 
open hand, and seeds united in little globular 
pendent balls. The best-known species are the 
Oriental or Asiatic plane-tree, and the Occidental 
or American, which is also called the button- 
wood and sycamore. It grows almost all over 
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. 
It is occasionally more than 100 feet high and from 
12 to 15 feet thick, and makes an excellent shade 
tree. Its wood is hard and close-grained, and 
largely used for joiners’ work. 

Plant. [AS., from R. planta, a plant.] An organ¬ 
ized living thing, generally without feeling or 
voluntary motion, with a root, stem, and leaves, 
though consisting sometimes only of a single 
leafy expansion. Plants grow in a great variety 
of forms, such as trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, 
ferns, mosses, lichens, etc. Trees and shrubs are 
called perennials, because they live on through 
many years. Herbs are divided into annuals, 
biennials, and perennials. All parts of a plant— 
root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit—are made 
up of cells of different kinds, and by means of 
these the plant lives and grows. The food of 
plants is partly gaseous and partly liquid. The 
gaseous food is carbonic acid, which they get 
chiefly from the air, and take in principally by 
their leaves. The liquid food is water, which 
they take up mostly through their roots. Most 
plants grow from seeds, and although all do not 
bear true flowers and real seeds, they all have 
something which answers for seeds. Thus we 
have flowering plants and flowerless plants. The 
former class includes almost all trees, shrubs, 
and herbs; while ferns, mosses, sea-weeds, 
lichens, and fungi constitute the latter. Flower¬ 
ing plants are divided into two classes, which 
differ from each other in stems, leaves, and seeds. 
These classes are further divided into orders or 
families, each of which is named after some chief 
plant of its order—as the Oak family, the Pine 
family, the Rose family, etc. 

FMan'tain. [Sp. plantano.'] A plant or tree and its 
fruit, of the genus Musa , found in the countries 


of the torrid zone. The plantain attains a height 
of from 15 to 20 feet, with leaves often more 
than 6 feet long and nearly 2 feet broad. Its 
fruit is extensively used as food. (See Banana.) 

Piaster. [R. emplastrum, with ein dropped.] A 
mixture of lime, sand, and water, employed in 
overlaying the interior and exterior faces of 
walls. Plaster of Paris , sulphate of lime—a 
powder extensively employed in making casts of 
statuary. 

Plate=glass. A fine kind of glass (q. v.), cast in 
plates, used for looking-glasses, etc. 

Plaf/inum. [Span., from plata, silver.] A com¬ 
paratively rare metal, found only in the native 
state, commonly in grains, scales, or nuggets, 
and generally alloyed with five other metals— 
namely, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, 
and ruthenium. It is obtained chiefly from the 
Ural Mountains, and in smaller quantities in 
brazil, California, Ceylon, and Borneo. Platinum 
possesses a dull white color, and does not 
tarnish under any circumstances in the air. It 
is heavier than gold, as soft as copper, and may 
be hammered into thin plates and drawn out into 
fine wire. It is very infusible, and can only be 
melted by the heat of the oxy-hydrogen blow¬ 
pipe. It is used for electrical and chemical 
apparatus, and since the introduction of platino- 
type processes in photography the metal has 
very much increased in price. 

Plov / er. [Fr., the rain-bird ; from R. pluvia , 
rain.] A genus of wading birds, which are found 
in every quarter of the globe. Many of them are 
birds of passage, and Ihey are prized as game 
birds. Among the more important species are 
the black-breasted plover and the golden plover 
of Europe and America, the ringed plover, Wil¬ 
son’s plover, the stilt plover, and the lapwing. 
(See Lapwing.) 

Plum. [AS., from R. primus. ] The name given 
to a tree or shrub and its fruit. It belongs to the 
genus Prunus , of which there are several species. 
From 200 to 300 varieties of plums are derived 
from the Prunus domestica species. Among the 
best known are the green gage, the Orleans , 
the damson , the purple gage, and the German 
prune. Plums are much used for dessert, and 
are made into preserves and prunes. 

Plumb. [R. plumbum, lead.] A little weight of 
lead attached to a line, and used by builders, etc., 
to indicate a vertical direction. Plumb-line, the 
cord by which a plumb-bob is suspended. 

Plumba'go. [R. plumbum, lead.] Native carbon 
in hexagonal crystals, of black color and metallic 
lustre, and so soft as to leave a trace on paper. It 
is used for pencils, for crucibles, and as a lubri¬ 
cator. 

PlurrUmet. A piece of lead attached to a line, 
used in sounding the depth of water. Plummet¬ 
line, a line with a plummet. 

Plush. [Fr., from R. pilus, hair.] A kind of 
cloth with a nap or shag on one side, longer and 
softer than the nap of velvet. 

Pointer. A breed of hunting dogs which, when 
they scent game, stop and stand motionless until 

693 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


118 


the hunter is near enough to shoot. Then, at 
the word, the dog darts forward and springs the 
game. 

PoFson. [Fr., from E. potio, a drink.] Any sub¬ 
stance or matter which, when introduced into 
the body in any way, can destroy life by its own 
inherent qualities without acting mechanically. 
Poison visually denotes something received into 
the system by the mouth, breath, etc. Venom is 
something discharged from animals and received 
by means of a wound, as by the bite or sting of 
serpents, scorpions, etc. 

Pole'cat. An animal of the Weasel tribe that is 
highly destructive to poultry. It possesses 
glands which secrete a fluid of a very offensive 
odor. This it gives off when pursued, thus 
checking dog or man until the animal can escape. 


POTTERY 

It occurs in all parts of Europe. The weasels 
generally emit a fetid secretion, much the worst 
examples being those of the polecat and the 
frightfully offensive skunk ( q . v.). 

Polo. A game of ball resembling hockey, the 
players being on horseback. It is of Eastern 
origin, and the name properly signifies the ball 
used in the game. 

Pomade' or Pomadum. [Fr., from L .pomuin, 
an apple ; pomade being formerly made by boil¬ 
ing apples in fat.] Ointment made of some fine 
inodorous fat, such as lard or suet, and used in¬ 
stead of liquid oil for dressing the hair. It is 
perfumed by the addition of fragrant essences or 
essential oils. 

Pomegranate. [Fr., from E. pomuin; and 
granatus , grained, having many grains or seeds.] 
A tropical shrub or small tree and its fruit, which 
is red, as large as an orange, and has a thick, 
leathery skin containing a juicy, pleasant- 
flavored pulp and numerous seeds. The pulp 
and the seeds are the parts eaten. The rind of 
the fruit and the bark of the root are used for 
tanning the finest morocco leather, and also in 
medicine. 

694 


Poplar. [Fr., from L. populus , a poplar.] A ta.ll 
tree of the same family as the willow, of rapid 
growth, and having soft wood, capable of many 
uses. About twenty species are known, growing 
chiefly in mild and cold climates. The most im¬ 
portant are the gray poplar, a native of Britain ; 
the Eombardy poplar, of a conical form and 
without horizontal branches; the balsam pop¬ 
lar, the buds of which are covered with a sticky 
varnish called balsam ; the Canadian poplar, and 
the cottonwood, a valuable timber tree, which is 
very abundant on the upper sections of the Mis¬ 
sissippi and the Missouri valleys. 

Pop py. [AS. popig .] A herbaceous plant be¬ 
longing to the genus Pap aver , and bearing large, 
showy, but short-lived flowers. The most 
important species is that known as the opium or 

oil-poppy. It is exten¬ 
sively cultivated i 11 
warm climates for its 
milky juice, which 
wh eu condensed 
forms the opium of 
commerce, and also 
for the bland fixed oil 
obtained from the 
seeds. Poppy oil is as 
sweet as olive oil, 
and is employed for 
culinary purposes. 
(See Opium.) 

Por'celain. [Fr., 
from Ital. porcellana, 
the porcelain or Venus 
shell: E. porous, a 
pig.] A fine kind of 
earthenware, first 
made in China and 
Japan ; so called from 
its likeness in color 
to the. Venus shell, 
which was thought to resemble in shape 
the back of a young pig. It is now made 
in Europe and America. It is also called china 
or chinaware. Some of the French and English 
porcelain, especially that made at Sevres and 
Worcester, is extremely white and translucent, 
but is more apt to crack by sudden changes of 
temperature, and is more brittle, than the finest 
porcelains of China and Japan. (See Pottery.) 

Por / cupine. [Fr., from E. porcus , a hog; and 
spina , a thorn.] A nocturnal rodent quadruped, 
about two feet long, having on the head and 
neck a crest of long hairs, very short hair on the 
legs and muzzle, and the other parts covered 
with spines or quills, some a foot long, which, 
when excited, the animal raises almost at right 
angles with the body. Porcupines generally in¬ 
habit warm or tropical regions. The common or 
crested of southern Europe and northern Africa, 
and the Canadian or North American, are the 
best-known species. 

Por'phyry. [Fr., from Gk .porphyrites:porphyra, 
purple.] A hard, finely-grained stone or rock, 
having a compact felspatliic base, through which 
are scattered distinct crystals of one or more 


















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


minerals. Porphyry may be green, with blotches 
of paler green or white; or red, with white 
blotches or specks ; and has other shades of color. 
The blotches of a polished surface are the felspar 

crystals. The 
rock abounds 
in Egypt, in the 
northern parts 
o f Europe, i n 
South America, 
and in Mexico. 
All the varieties 
are esteemed as 
marbles, and 
used in fine 
sculpture-work. 
Por / poise. 
[Fr., from E. 
porcus, a hog ; 
and piscis, fish.] 
This animal be- 
longs to the 
same genus as 
whales, and i s 
the smallest and 
most familiar of 
the cetacean 
mammalia. 11 
is from 4 to 6 
feet in length, of 
a dusky or black¬ 
ish color on the 
back, and white beneath. It is closely allied to the 
dolphins, but has a shorter snout. When swim¬ 
ming, its round back looks like a hog in 
water. Porpoises swim in shoals, and drive her¬ 
rings, mackerel, and salmon before them. Thev 
seek for prey near the surface, but also descend 
to the bottom in search of sand-eels and sea- 
worms, which they root out of the sand with 
their noses, as hogs do in the field for their food. 
From their blubber or flesh a fine oil is made, 
and from their skins leather for the uppers of 
boots and shoes. 

Pot/ash. [Pot, and ashes, prepared by evaporat¬ 
ing in iron pots the lixivium of the ashes of 
wood.] An alkali much used in the arts. It is 
an oxide of potassium, though the potash of 
commerce, usually called crude potash, is properly 
potassium carbonate, because it contains carbon 
as well as potassium and oxygen. 

Potassium. A metal of a bright silver-white 
color, derived in 1807 by Sir Humphrey Davy 
from potash. It is prepared by heating together 
potash and carbon to a high temperature in an 
iron retort. It is lighter than water, brittle at 
32 0 Fahrenheit, malleable at a little higher 
temperature, melts at 62°, and when heated to a 
temperature below red heat it yields a fine green- 
colored vapor. It has a strong affinity for 
oxygen, taking fire when thrown upon water or 
ice, and oxidizes so readily that to be preserved 
it must be kept in substances which contain no 
oxygen, as naphtha or kerosene. Its com pounds 
are very important, being used in glass and soap 
making, in artificial manures, and in many drugs 


119 

and chemicals. The most important of the salts 
of potassium are potash, nitre or saltpetre, 
chlorate of potash, and cream of tartar. 

Pota / to. [Span, patata, potato, from the native 
American word (probably batata ) in Hayti.] 
Next to the cereals or grains, the potato is the 
most valuable of all plants used for food. It is a 
native of South America, and was introduced 
into Great Britain by Sir Walter Raleigh in the 
sixteenth century. The potato plant has a 
portion of its stem underground, and this part 
sends out roots and real branches. It is at the 
ends of these branches that potatoes are formed. 
Every part of the potato plant except the tuber 
dies off on the approach of winter, and the tuber 
is the special provision made by the plant for 
reproduction. The eyesofthe potato are real buds, 
and the solid flesh of the tuber consists mainly 
of starcti, the destined food of the young plant. 
Potatoes are largely cultivated in all mild 
climates. There are very many varieties, differ¬ 
ing in time of ripening, form, size, color, and 
quality. New varieties are raised from the seed, 
but potatoes are grown by planting the tubers or 
cuttings of them, care being taken to have at 
least one eye in each piece. About three-fourths 
of the weight of a full-grown potato is water, 
and of the other fourth about one-sixth is gluten 
and five-sixths starch. 

Pot/tery. [Fr. poterie.~\ The term applied to all 
objects made out of baked clay. The art of 
forming utensils of clay is of very ancient 
origin, extending back to the early days of 
mankind. Its rudimentary condition, that of 
merely molding soft clay into the desired form 
and drying it by the heat of the sun, was suc¬ 
ceeded by baking it in a fire to make it harder 
and less brittle. Other substances were after¬ 
wards mixed with the clay so as to make finer 
and more delicate pottery. Gradually the potter 
enhanced the value of the art by forming graceful 
designs, and by painting and decorating them, 
until at the present day the art of the potter is 
one of the most important. Pottery may be 
divided as regards material and baking into three 
kinds—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain 
or china. The term pottery is applied to all 
ware of the opaque kind, while porcelain applies 
to that which is translucent. 

PraFrie. [Fr., from Low L. prataria ; L. pratum, 
a meadow.] A large level tract of country, bare 
of trees, covered with coarse grass, and generally 
of a fertile soil. This name is applied to the 
treeless plains of the Mississippi valley. Similar 
plains in the South are called Savannahs. 

Prai / rie=dog. A small rodent animal, allied to the 
marmot, and found in the prairies west of the 
Mississippi. It is gregarious in habit, dwells in 
largely arid districts, makes deep burrows in the 
earth, and throws up mounds. On these the 
animal often sits, and, if disturbed, gives a 
warning cry somewhat like the bark of a small dog. 

Precious stones. Minerals which are used in 
jewelry on account of their rarity and beauty. 
They include the diamond, ruby, emerald, 
sapphire, and many others. 



695 









120 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Prim 'rose. [OldFr. primer ole, from L. primula; 
corrupted in spelling as if from L. prima rosa.~\ 
A beautiful early-flowering plant, closely allied 
to the cowslip, common in meadows and on the 
banks of streams of England. The evening prim¬ 
rose is a biennial herb from 3 to 6 feet high, 
resplendent with yellow flow T ers which open at 
sundown, common in upland meadows, along 
fence-rows, and in sunny wastes. 

Print/ing. The art of producing impressions on 
paper. It is divided into the printing of books 
and newspapers from movable type, and from 
stereotype or electrotype plates. Printing was 
known to the Chinese as early as the sixth cen¬ 
tury, but their system was that of printing from 
engraved blocks. The invention of movable 
types is claimed by the Dutch in favor of Coster, 
1420; and by the Germans on behalf of Guten¬ 
berg, 1440. Printing was introduced into Eng¬ 
land by Caxton in 1477. Wooden types were 
first used, but those made of type metal are now 
general. The first apparatus used for taking the 
impressions from types and blocks was in the 
form of a screw-press. This rude contrivance 
was soon replaced by a wooden lever-press, 
which in turn gave way to the hand-press made 
of iron, and this to the steam-press. Books 
are printed either on single-cylinder machines, 
which print one side of a sheet of paper by 
passing it over a form of type or plates, or on 
double-cylinder or perfecting machines, which 
print both sides of the sheet while it passes 
through the machine. In both cases ink \q. v.) 
is supplied by a self-inking apparatus, consisting 
of slabs and several soft composition rollers. 
Newspapers and periodicals are printed on rotary 
or web-printing machines, which take an im¬ 
pression from curved stereotype plates fixed on a 
rotating cylinder, the paper being run into the 
machine from huge reels. These machines pro¬ 
duce from 12,000 to 24,000 printed sheets per 
hour. The Walter press, the Victory, the Hoe, 
and the Marinoni are most in use, and usually 
have folding-machines attached, which deliver 
the sheets folded. For some periodicals, not 
only the body of the magazine but the cover is 
printed on the same machine, and the magazine 
folded and inserted inside the cover. 

Prism. [Gk. prisma , something sawn off; 
prizein — priein , to saw.] A piece of wood, 



metal, glass, etc., the ends of which are parallel, 
and equal in size and shape, and the sides 
parallelograms. Prisms of different forms are 
often named from the figure of their bases, as 
triangular, hexagonal, etc.—In optics, a three- 
sided piece of glass with two equal and parallel 

696 


triangular ends, used for separating the colors in 
a ray of light, and in refraction, etc. (See Spec¬ 
trum.} 

Pri'vet. [From primet , perhaps from prim , be¬ 
cause cut and trimmed.] An ornamental P.uro- 
pean shrub, much used in hedges. ( Ligustrum .) 

PropeFler. A contrivance for propelling a steam¬ 
ship, usually consisting of a screw placed in the 
stern, and made to revolve under the water by 
an engine. 

Prune. [FT., from L. prunum , a plum.] A dried 
plum, much used in cookery. The best prunes 
come from France, where several kinds of plums 
are raised for making prunes. Great quantities 
are also exported from Bosnia and Servia. 

Ptarmigan. The white grouse, a bird found in 
northern Europe and America. Its color in 
summer is a pale-brown or ash, with wings and 
under-plumage white. In winter its plumage 
changes in color to a pure white. 

Puf'fin. An arctic sea-bird allied to the auks, 
so called from its short, thick, swollen beak and 
rounded belly. It is also known by the names of 
bottle-nose , cockandy , coulter neb , mormon , pope , 
and sea-parrot. 

PuFley. [Fr., from pull , or from Low L . pullanus, 
a colt.] One of the mechanical powers, consist¬ 
ing of a wheel called the sheave , movable about 



an axis, and having a groove cut in its circum¬ 
ference, over which a cord or rope passes. The 
rope is attached at one end to a fixed point, and 
the force acting on the free end of the rope is 
doubled, but the load is only moved through 
half the space traversed by the rope. Pulleys 
are used either singly to change the direction of 
the power applied, or in various forms of com¬ 
bination to raise heavy weights. 

Puma. (See Cougar .) 

PumTce. A porous mineral thrown out from 
volcanoes. It is a spongy lava, so light that it 
will float on w T ater. It is powdered and used as a 
polishing material. 

Pump. A hydraulic machine, variously con¬ 
structed, for raising water and other liquids. The 
common or suction pump is constructed as fol¬ 
lows :—The lower end of a long, narrow, vertical 
pipe, called the suction-pipe , is immersed in a 

















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


I 2 I 


well or reservoir of water, and the upper end 
communicates with a wider pipe, called the bar¬ 
rel which has a lid on the top and a spout on 

one side near the top. 
The barrel contains 
two valves, both 
opening upwards, 
—the lower one, 
between the suction- 
pipe and the barrel, 
called the suction- 
valve ; and the upper 
one, called the pis¬ 
ton valve , affixed to 
the upper surface of 
a inovable piston, 
connected by a rod 
with the handle of 
the pump. On work¬ 
ing the pump the air below the piston is exhaus¬ 
ted, and water is forced into the vacuum and 
through the lower valve by atmospheric pressure. 
On the descent of the piston the water above the 
lower valve, closing that valve by its weight, 
passes through the piston, and is then lifted to 
the level of the discharging tube or spout. (See 
Air-pump and Force-pump.) 

Pump'kin. The fruit of a plant allied to the squash, 
and belonging to the gourd family. The plant is 
a running vine, the fruit a large oblong globe, 
of orange color when ripe, and sometimes of im¬ 
mense size. It is used for feeding cattle, and as 
a food; either boiled, or made into a pie with 
other ingredients. 

Purse. [Fr., from Tow L. bursa , a purse : Ok. 
byrsa , a hide.] A small bag for money, generally 


made of skin or leather ; a small bag or pouch, 
the opening of which is made to draw together 
closely. 

Put/ty. [Fr., from potee , from pot , pot; what 
was formerly called putty being a substance re¬ 
sembling what is now called putty powder , and 
in part made of the metal of old pots.] A mixture 
of whiting or soft carbonate of lime and linseed 
oil, beaten to the consistence of dough, and used 
in fastening glass in sashes, and for filling up 
crevices, etc. Putty powder is an oxide of tin, 
or of tin and lead in various proportions, used in 
polishing glass, metals, and precious stones. 

Pyramid. A solid body whose base is a square, 
triangle, or polygon, and its sides plane trian¬ 
gles, meeting at top in one common point. Archi¬ 
tecturally, it applies to the great mounds of stone 
or brickwork found in Egypt, and in some other 
countries. The largest of the pyramids is that 
built by Cheops, on the plain of the Nile. This 
has a square base, each side of which measures 
763.4 feet, while its height is 480 feet. The pyr¬ 
amids contain sepulchral chambers, in which the 
bodies of the Pharaohs were buried. 

Pyrometer. [Gk. pyr, fire ; and metron , a mea¬ 
sure.] An instrument for measuring heat too 
high in temperature to be measured by common 
thermometers, as the heat of furnaces. 

Pyx. [Gk pyxis, a box ; pyzos, box-wood.] The 
sacred box in the Roman Catholic Church in 
which the host is preserved ; the box at the Mint 
which holds the sample coins that have been 
tested for the weight and fineness of the metal; 
the box in which the compass is suspended. 



Quad'rant. [L. quadrans , a fourth part.] An 
instrument used in astronomy, navigation, sur¬ 
veying, and gunnery, for measuring altitudes 
and determining angular measurements. It gene¬ 
rally consists of a brass limb, the quarter of the 
circumference of a circle, mounted 011 a frame 
and marked with degrees, minutes, etc., and 
having a plumb-line or spirit-level for fixing the 
vertical or horizontal direction. 

Quag'ga. An animal of the Horse tribe, found in 
southern Africa. It strongly resembles the zebra, 
though of smaller size. It is social in hamt, lives 
in large troops, and is more easily tamed than 
the zebra. It is said to have been largely or 
wholly exterminated by hunters. 

Quail. [Fr., from Low L- q-uaquila; from Old 
Du. root of quack, because of its cry.] A bird of 
passage, the smallest of the Partridge family, 
common in the south of Europe, and in Asia, 
Africa and North America. Ouails live in flocks, 
feed chiefly on insects, slugs, grains, and seeds, 
and are noted for taking long and fatiguing 
iourneys. Immense flocks visit the countries 
along the Mediterranean, and large numbers are 
caught for food. The flesh is more juicy and 
delicate than that of the partridge. 


Q 

Quar / rantine. [Fr. quarante , forty ; L. quad- 
ragintaJ\ The space of time, formerly forty 
days, but now variable in length, during which 
a ship suspected of having infectious disease 011 
board is obliged to forbear all intercourse with 
the shore. 

Quart. [L. quartus , fourth.] A measure of 
capacity, in dry and in liquid measure, equal to 
two pints, or the fourth part of a gallon. The 
English quart contains 69.32 cubic inches ; the 
United States dry quart contains 67.20 cubic 
inches, the fluid quart 57.75- 
Quartz [Ger. quarz .] The common name of 
silicon oxide or silica, the most abundant of all 
minerals, being one of the constituents of granite, 
gneiss, mica slate, etc. It forms quartz rock and 
sandstone, and makes most of the sand of the 
seashore. It occurs massive, crystallized, gran¬ 
ular, and in other forms. The primary form of 
the crystal is a rhomboid; but it is generally 
met with in hexagonal prisms, terminated by 
hexagonal pyramids. When crystallized and 
pure," it is called rock-crystal , and is transparent 
and colorless. Quartz is so hard that it will 
scratch glass and strike fire against steel. It 
comprises numerous varieties, many of which 

697 
































122 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


are colored by different substances—as purple 
quartz, or amethyst, rose quartz, yellow quartz, 
chalcedony, agate, darnelian, bloodstone, jaspar, 



THE QUAIL, 

sard, onyx, cat’s-eye, etc. Quartz is used in the 
manufacture of glass, and of porcelain and other 
kinds of pottery ; also as a flux in the'smelting 
of several kinds of ores. Gold often occurs in 
quartz veins, and quartz-crushing machines are 
used to extract the gold ore. 

Quas'sia. [Named from a negro, Quassy , who first 
made known the medicinal virtues of one of the 
species.] A genus of tree belonging to the 
tropical parts of South America. The wood of 
the root is intensely bitter, and is used in medi¬ 
cine, and sometimes as a substitute for hops in 
making beer. 

Quay. [Fr. quai .] A bank or wharf constructed 
toward the sea or at the side of a harbor, river, 
or other navigable water, for convenience in load¬ 
ing and unloading vessels. 


Rabbit. A small rodent quadruped of the Hare 
family, living chiefly in large colonies called 
warrens, in burrows dug deep into the ground. 
They are not much seen during the day, but 
come out at night to eat, and they often do great 
damage by gnawing the bark off young trees and 
bj' spoiling growing crops. Rabbits are remark¬ 
ably prolific, and have become pests in some 
parts of Australia and New Zealand. The com¬ 
mon European species, which is often kept as a 
pet, has been introduced into many countries. 

Raccoon 7 . [Fr. raton , a little rat.] A carnivorous 
animal of the Bear family inhabiting North 
America. Its body is gray, varied with black 
and white. The average length of the raccoon 
is about two feet from the nose to the tail, and 
the tail is about ten inches long. The head 
somewhat resembles that of the fox. It feeds 
chiefly by night, keeping in its hole during the 
day, except in dull weather. One of the marked 

698 


QuickTime. A white, caustic, infusible powder, 
obtained in a state of purity by heating pure 
carbonate of lime to full redness; so called 
because when wet it develops great heat. The 
quicklime of commerce is obtained by calcining in 
kilns any carbonate of lime, as limestone, marble, 
chalk, etc. Mixed with sand and water it forms 
lime. (See Lime.) 

Quicksilver. [Quick and silver .] Mercury ; so 
named for the great mobility of its globules, 
and its resemblance in color to silver. (See 

Mercury .) 

Quilt. [L. culcita, a bed, a cushion.] A cover or 
coverlet made by stitching one cloth over 
another, with some soft substance, such as wool, 
cotton, etc., between them. 

Quince. [Fr. coing , from L,. cydonius , a quince 
tree ; so called from the town of Cydonia, in 
Crete, which was noted for its quinces.] The 
fruit of a shrub which grows in mild climates, 
and belongs to the same family as the apple. 
The fruit is usually pear-shaped, but some quinces 
look more like an apple. Quinces possess a hard 
flesh of high flavor, but very acid, and though 
not good to eat raw, they are largely used for 
marmalade, jelly, and preserves. 

QuinTne. [Fr.] An alkaloid obtained from the 
bark of different species of cinchona trees, 
originally known in Peru, but now transplanted 
to Java and India. It has a bitter taste, and 
forms the base of certain salts used in medicine. 
—Sulphate of Quinine, a salt crystallizingin snow- 
white. light, efflorescent needles. It is not very 
soluble in water, but dissolves easily when a drop 
or two of sulphuric acid is added, and is exten¬ 
sively used in medicine as a tonic and febrifuge. 

Quire. [Fr. cahier , a book of loose sheets.] 
Twenty-four sheets of paper of the same size 
and quality, unfolded or having a single fold; 
one-twentieth part of a ream. 


peculiarities of the common species, Procyon 
lotor , and on which its specific name ( lotor , 
from E. lavare, to wash) is founded, is its habit 
of plunging its dry food into water before eating 
it. Its fur is valuable, particularly in the manu¬ 
facture of hats. 

Rad ish. [Fr., from T. radix , a root.] A garden 
plant, cultivated for its pungent fleshy root, 
which is eaten raw for salad. 

Raft. [Scand.] A float consisting of logs, boards, 
or other pieces of timber fastened together, either 
to serve as a support in conveying other things, 
or for their own collective conveyance on the 
water. 

Rail. [Fr. raler , to rattle in the throat.] Numer¬ 
ous species of birds prized as game birds. The 
common European land-rail is usually known 
as the corncrake. It has a grating cry, fa¬ 
miliar in summer. The ivater-rail has a 
longer bill and darker plumage, and loves the 




















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


123 


wet marshes. It is found in Iceland, North 
Africa, and China. American species are the 
clapper-rail or marsh-hen, the king or red¬ 
breasted rail, the Virginia rail, and the Carolina 
rail or ortolan. The flesh of all these birds is 
delicate, and the Virginia rail is a favorite game 
bird. 

RaiFway or RaiUroad. A road or way of parallel 
iron or steel rails on which the wheels of car¬ 
riages run, and supported on a bed or structure. 
Railivay is the usual word in England, but 
railroad 4 s common in the United States. 
The modern railroad is an adaptation of the old 
horse tram-roads, with cast-iron flange rails, 
used for hauling coals early in the century. The 
Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first line 
with locomotives, was opened in October, 1825. 
The first passenger line in the United States was 
the Baltimore and Ohio, opened in 1830. There 
are now over 190,000 miles of railroad in the 
United States, 160,000 in Europe, and about 
450,000 in the world. Rails are now usually laid 
to the standard width or gauge of 4 feet 8*4 
inches. The iron rail, formerly wholly in use, 
has been widely replaced by steel. The steam 
locomotive known as the Rocket , invented by 
Robert Stephenson in 1829, weighed 8 or 9 
tons; locomotive engines now weigh from 35 to 
50 tons, and draw a train averaging from 400 to 
500 tons. In 1838, on the Uondon and Birming¬ 
ham line, a speed of 20 miles an hour was 
obtained. Now a speed of 50 miles an hour, 
including stoppages, is maintained on one 
of the New York Central trains between 
New York and Chicago for a distance of nearly 
r,ooo miles, and 60 miles an hour is made 
on some roads for shorter distances. A straight 
and horizontal surface being the standard 
of perfection for railroad-making, sharp curves 
and steep gradients are regarded as evils. Routes 
are therefore shortened by embankments, cut¬ 
tings, tunnels, and bridges. Among the remark¬ 
able railway tunnels are the St. Gothard and 
Mont Cenis in Switzerland, and the Hoosac 
Tunnel in Massachusetts. Of railway bridges the 
most wonderful are the Forth Bridge, Victoria 
Bridge (Montreal), Britannia(Menai Strait) ; also 
those at St. Louis, Rock Island, Louisville, and 
Niagara. Cars such as Pullman cars, with 
entrance at each end, are common in the United 
States and Switzerland ; those entering at the 
sides are usual in Britain and other parts of 
Europe. 

Rain. [AS. regen.~\ Water falling from the clouds 
in drops. This is the chief source of water- 
supply. By the heat of the sun water is evapo¬ 
rated from the surfaces of the seas and oceans 
and transported as water-vapor by winds. When 
it is condensed by cold, chiefly caused by the 
heated air rising into higher regions, it returns 
again to the liquid state, and falls down as drops 
of water in rain ; or, if the cold be very great, the 
water may pass at once into the solid state, and 
fall as snow or as hail. Rain-water is very soft, 
and in country places it is pure ; the air of large 
towns being full of impurities, the rain brings 


them down with it as it falls, and so purifies the 
air by washing it. In Britain the prevailing 
winds are westerly, and, being charged with 
moisture from the Atlantic, much rain falls on 
the western coasts, and pasture is abundant. 
In the eastern part of the United States, where 
there are no great mountains to catch the 
moisture, the rainfall is uniform ; but in the west 
and north the rainfall is determined by a centre 
of low atmospheric pressure in the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains. The heaviest rains occur in the tropics, 
and are confined to one part of the year called 
the rainy season. At a point 100 miles north of 
Calcutta the annual rainfall is from 500 to 600 
inches. In Burmah the rainfall is 200 inches. 

RairUbow. [AS.] A bow or arch in the sky 
opposite to the sun in time of rain, caused by 
the rays of light breaking up into their seven 
separate colors as they fall on the rain drops. 
(See Prism , Spectrum , Light.) Rainbows some¬ 
times occur on the spray rising from waterfalls. 
Most rainbows are seen in the afternoon, when 
the sun is in the west, and sometimes in the 
morning, but never at noon, because then the 
sun is above us, and we cannot stand between it 
and the rain. When there is a double rainbow 
the inner is the primary, and the outer the faint 
or secondary one. 

RaFsin. [Fr., from L. racemus.~\ A ripe grape 
dried in the sun or by artificial heat. (See 
Grape.) Raisins are dried either with the stalk 
cut nearly into two and left to dry on the vines, 
or with the branch wholly cut off, hung up, or 
laid on floors to dry. The first are best, and are 
called the muscatels or raisins of the sun, and 
the finest come from Malaga and Valencia in 
Spain. Sultanas are made from a grape without 
seeds, and are brought from Smyrna. 

RarrFie. The fibres from the bark of the ramie 
plant, a native of India, now grown in the 
United States. The fibre is strong and lustrous, 
but the difficulty of separating it from the bark 
has proved a check to its use. The plant is a 
tall herb, sending up long shoots after each cut¬ 
ting. 

Rape. [L- rapal\ A root plant with a leaf like that 
of a swede turnip and a stem resembling that of 
a cabbage. It is sown in rows and hoed out like 
turnips. The plant grows rapidly, and its roots 
penetrate deeply into peaty soils and clays. The 
seeds are useful for cage-birds, and from rape- 
seed rape-oil is produced. 

Rasp / berry. A kind of shrub with a thimble¬ 
shaped fruit, dark-red, large grained, and covered 
with a thick bloom. Like the strawberry it 
belongs to the Rose family ; but, unlike 
the blackberry of the same family, the rasp 
separates readily from the core or receptacle. 
It has a perennial root, producing biennial 
woody stems or canes reaching to from 3 
to 6 feet in height. Usually the canes do not 
bear till the second year, and that ends their 
life, their place being taken by a new growth 
from the root. The wild raspberry is called the 
bramble. Raspberries are used for jams, jellies, 
and wine beverages. 


699 




124 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Rat. [AvS. rtz’l.~\ A gnawing or rodent animal 
like the mouse, but larger and more destructive. 
It has sharp chisel-shaped teeth, with which it 
gnaws holes through wood-work, and with its 
claws it burrows under floors. It can climb trees, 
and descend headforemost by means of its claws, 
which are hooked, and turn inward or outward. 
Rats are not easily caught, because they are so 
cunning and have so keen a scent that they will 
not go near a trap set by a person with bare 
hands. They eat both animal and vegetable 
food, and are found in fields, in w r oods, in the 
water, in houses, in barns, and in sewers. They 
cross the sea in ships, and have followed man 
over the world. They are a pest to the farmer, 
and destroy grain, steal eggs, and kill young 
poultry of the farm-yard. The rat increases in 
swarms, often alarmingly. But the cat, the dog, 
the ferret, the weasel, the hawk, and the owl all 
prey upon rats and keep down their numbers. 
They are fierce and dangerous and bite viciously. 
The common brown rat, or Norway rat, is about 
io inches long, and has a tail of about 8 inches, 
a pointed nose, and whiskers like a cat. Its fur 
is light brown above and dirty while beneath, 
and its feet are flesh-colored. The black rat is 
smaller and weaker. Water-rats are almost as 
large as brown rats, but are harmless, feeding on 
vegetable food, and making their holes in the 
banks of rivers, ditches, and ponds. Gloves are 
often made of rat-skin, and the fur is used for 
covering hats. In China the flesh of the rat is 
regarded as a delicacy. The squirrel-tailed 
wood-rat of the Rocky Mountains builds a great 
nest of sticks and brush in a tree or clump of 
shrubs. 

Rat / chet=wheel. A toothed circular wheel acted 
on by a bar or catch. The wheel moves forward 
by a reciprocating lever, and cannot be reversed 
until a ratchet or click for preventing backward 
motion is removed or lifted. 


Rattan A The long, slender stem of a species of 



RATTLESNAKE. 


calamus and other allied species of palms, which 
are among the most useful plants of Malaysia. 
These stems are largely used for cane-work, and 
also for making walking-sticks. 

700 


Rattlesnake. [O.E.] A poisonous snake of 
America, with horny interlocking joints at the 
end of its tail with which it makes a rattling 
sound before striking its prey. The rattle is 
composed of a number of horny, button-like 
rings which fit loosely into one another and make 
a rustling noise when shaken rapidly. Some 
think that one new rattle is added with each 
shedding of its skin. The poisonous fangs take 
the place of other teeth in the upper jaw. These 
fangs are a pair of large teeth punctured by a 
tube from the poison-gland. They are laid b^ck 
when not in use, but when the snake strikes its 
prey the fangs spring forward and the poison 
flows from the poison-gland. Its bite is very 
poisonous, and it is very much dreaded. The 
best known are the diamond rattlesnake of South 
America and the common rattlesnake of North 
America. (See Fang.) 

Ra / veil. [AS. hrcefenl] {Corvuscorax.) A bird 
like the crow, but larger, with a croaking voice 
and thievish habits as regards trinkets and food. 
It was once plentiful in England, but is now rare. 
Its color, though apparently black, is a deep blue. 
Its wings are long and slightly rounded, and its 
flight steady and rapid. It has a sedate walk, and 
when carrying off food has a curious hop, and 
makes use of its wings at the same time. It is 
wary, but is easily tamed and very sagacious. 
The raven is found in most parts of the globe, 
and ranges as far north as Melville Island, it 
being one of the few birds that brave the cold of 
an Arctic winter. 

Ray. \[Fr.] A flat kind of fish with ray-like fins 
on its breast. It has eyes on the upper surface, 
which is the back of the animal, and not the side, 
as in ordinary flat-fishes. The mouth is large, and 
the jaws are covered with numerous rows of small 
pointed teeth. The skin is usually beset with 
spines, in many cases resembling .true teeth in 
structure, and sometimes quite formidable 
weapons. Its eggs are enclosed in brown 
leathery four-sided cases like those of the shark 
or dog-fish, and with long processes at the angles. 
True rays have the snout more or less pointed, 
the tail slender, and two small dorsal fins. The 
Ray family includes the skate and thornback. 
Sting rays have long, tooth-like spines, which 
are often used by savages to form barbed spear 
and arrow heads. The sting ray is common in 
the Mediterranean. Eagle rays, or white rays, 
have great pectoral fins, which resemble wings, 
and their tails are like whips. Sharp-nosed rays 
are favorites of the French, who eat them instead 
of skate. Electric rays are sometimes called 
torpedo fishes. 

Ra / zor=bill or Common Auk. A sea-bird allied to 
the great auk, which is now extinct. It has 
wings large in proportion to its size. It is 17 or 
18 inches long, and its wing is 7 or 8 inches, and 
when extended the wings are 27 inches wide. It 
has a glossy black head, a dark-brown throat, a 
white breast, and lower body of white. Its bill 
is strong and hooked. It lays one large egg of a 
greenish color. This bird abounds in the Arctic 
seas, migrating southward in the cold season. 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


125 


Ra / zor=fish. A long, slender, and brittle mollusc 
that abounds on all sandy shores. The shell has 
delicate tints of rose and violet, covered by a 
brown epidermis. By means of its muscular foot 
it digs a deep hole, which it does not leave, but 
raises itself to the entrance of the hole. It is 
timid and difficult to catch. 

Ream. [Fr., from Arab, rizmat , bundle.] A 
quantity of paper, consisting of 20 quires or 480 
sheets. A common practice now is to count 500 
sheets to the ream. 

Reau'mur. A thermometer with zero as the melt¬ 
ing-point of ice, and 8o° the boiling-point of 
water. Four degrees of Reaumur are equal to 5 
degrees Centigrade and 9 degrees Fahrenheit. 
The Reaumur thermometer is in general use in 
Spain and Germany. 

Reed. [AS.] A thick, coarse grass, with hollow, 
jointed stalks, growing in or near water. The 
common reed grows in Furope and North 
America. The bamboo is a useful reed. The 
papyrus is often called the Egyptian reed .—A 
slip of cane in the mouth-piece of a musical in¬ 
strument, and set in vibration by the breath. In 
the harmonium, melodeon, and accordeou the 
reed is a thin piece of metal which by vibration 
produces the tones of the instrument. 

Reef. [Du. rif \ a rift.] A line of rocks lying at 
or near the surface of the water. Any large vein 
of auriferous quartz or rock yielding ore is called 
a reef. 

Reflection. The effect produced upon light by a 
smooth surface. Part of the light enters the 
body, part is thrown back or reflected at an angle 
opposite to that made by the incident ray. This 
is the principle of the mirror, the body whose 
light is reflected seeming to lie behind the 
mirror, in the direction of the reflected ray. 

Refraction. When a ray of light passes from 
space through the air, or from air through water, 
glass, or other transparent, it is bent from its 
original course more towards the line leading to 
the earth’s centre. This bending is known as re¬ 
fraction, and is the source of various important 
phenomena of optics. 

ReirEdeer. [Scand. from Rappish.] A kind of 
deer with branching horns found in the extreme 
north parts of Europe and America. Reindeer 
are gregarious and herd together. The full-grown 
bucks shed their horns. The horns of the 
female reindeer are retained during the win¬ 
ter. The reindeer feeds on the lichen that 
thickly carpets barren lands in the subarctic 
regions. The common European reindeer is 
domesticated in Rapland. Raplanders depend on 
it for its milk, and as a beast of burden, or to 
draw sledges over the snow. When the path is 
good and not too hilly, the reindeer can travel 
100 miles a day. Their feet are well suited for 
walking on snow, owing to the manner in which 
the hoofs separate in treading, and to the long, 
coarse hair growing between the hoofs. The 
Siberian reindeer is larger than that of Rapland. 
The reindeer of North America are the cariboo or 
woodland reindeer, found in Canada and Maine, 
and the barren ground reindeer of the Rockies. 


RerrEora. A fish possessed of a structure which 
enables it to cling to foreign bodies. This is a 
modification of the dorsal fin, which becomes a 
flattened disk covering the top of the head, and 
acts as a sucker. Fables have arisen to the effect 
that this fish could arrest the course of a ship to 
which it attached itself. The species are from 12 
to 20 inches long. 

Rennet. [AS.] A preparation of the inner lining 
of the fourth stomach of a calf, used to curdle 
milk. 

Reptile. [Fr., from R. repere, to creep.] Reptiles 
form the first class of the higher vertebrata, or of 
those which never breathe by gills, like the am¬ 
phibians. Their blood is cold, and they closely 
resemble birds in the developmen t of their young ; 
but their eggs are very large. Reptiles include alli¬ 
gators, turtles, snakes, and lizards. Formerly 
amphibians were classed with reptiles, and are 
still properly called reptiles, though more closely 
allied to the fishes. Reptiles, except tortoises, 
are long, often nearly cylindrical, and usually 
covered with scales, and have long tails. The 
feet are of different lengths, but seldom suffice 
to support the body, the belly trailing on the 
ground when the animal is in motion. The mouth 
is large and armed with sharp, hooked teeth ; but 
in tortoises no teeth exist. The heart generally 
has two auricles and one ventricle. The ribs are 
always well developed; the limbs when present 
are well developed; the feet are freely movable, 
and end in strong claws. Except tortoises, all rep¬ 
tiles are carnivorous, feeding upon living prey ; 
their teeth not being constructed for the division 
of flesh, they swallow their victims whole. Rep¬ 
tiles are essentially inhabitants of the warmer 
regions of the earth. In earlier geological peri¬ 
ods, before the age of the mammalia, reptiles 
were often quadrupeds of immense size and 
strength. Some were essentially tripeds, sup¬ 
porting themselves on their hind legs and tails ; 
and some gained the habit of flying, with the aid 
of membraneous wings. 

Res / in. [Fr., from R. resina.~\ A half liquid 
substance, that flows from trees. Resins are 
made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and 
are probably the essential oils of the plants oxi¬ 
dized by the oxygen of the air. They dissolve in 
alcohol and ether and volatile oils, but not in water, 
like gums. Copal, lac, mastic, and benzoin are 
hard resins; turpentine and copaiba are soft resins. 
The common resin of commerce exudes from the 
pine tree, and is largely used in making var¬ 
nishes and in several medicines. 

Ret/ina. [R. rete, a net.] A fine net-like coating 
at the back of the eye, made up of the optic 
nerves which carry the sense of sight to the 
brain. The optic nerve and retinal blood-vessels 
spread out on the front of the retina, and the 
sensory layer, with rods and cones, is on the back 
part next the choroid coat. 

Retort 7 . [R. retortus , twisted back.] A vessel 
with a long bent tube used by chemists in de¬ 
composing substances or in distilling. For dis¬ 
tilling liquids a glass retort is employed. Metal 
retorts are used in distilling coal, wood, or bones. 

701 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


126 


Retriev / er. [Fr.] A dog trained to find and 
bring back game that has been shot or wounded. 

Revolver. A pistol with several chambers re¬ 
volving on an axis, that can be fired one after 
another by the same trigger through the same 
barrel. 

Rhe'a. The American ostrich. This is scarcely 



more than half the size of the African species, 
and differs from it in having the head feathered. 
It is gray in color, and has none of the beauty of 
the true ostrich. It is abundant in South 
America. 

Rhe / ostat. A resistance box in the path of an 
electric current, for the purpose of increasing the 
general resistance to the current flow. The box 
contains coils of wire made of a metal that is a 
poor conductor of electricity. When the current 
is first turned on to a motor, as that of a streetcar, 
it is important that it should be done gradually, 
so that the motor will not start off at once with 
full force. This is accomplished by sending the 
current through a rheostat. If the box have 12 
coils, the current is sent at first through the 
whole of them, then, by turning the handle, 
through 11, 10, 9, and so downward, until all the 
coils are cut out and the entire strength of the 
current reaches the motor, and sets it turning at 
full speed 

Rhinoceros. [Gk. rhis, rhinos , the nose; and 
keras, a horn.] A hoofed animal with a horn, 
and next in size to the elephant. Its horn is 
placed upon the skin behind the nostrils. It is 
not unlike whalebone, and is made of a number 
of fine hairs firmly glued and pressed together. 
The point of the tip is very smooth and quite 
sharp, but the lower part where it joins the skin 
is rough. It is very heavy, and is made into 
drinking-cups. The Indian or white rhinoceros 
and the Javan rhinoceros have one horn. Two or 
three African kinds have two horns, but no 
canine or incisor teeth. The lower horn stands 
straight out from the head, and is often 4 feet 
long. The rhinoceros is from 4 to 5 feet in 
height and 11 in length, and has such a thick, 
tough skin that nothing can pierce it, therefore 
the natives make it into shields. The rhinoceros 

702 


has a savage temper, and is a dangerous enemy. 
It lives alone in thick forests by the banks of 
rivers; for it is a great swimmer, and spends a 
great portion of its time in water, where it can 
easily find leaves and grasses for food. It has on 
each foot three toes, with a hoof on each toe. 

Rhododendron. [Gk. rhodon , a rose; and den- 
dron, a tree.] A kind of shrub of the Heath 
family, with evergreen leaves and large, showy 
flowers like roses. No other shrub equals it for 
beauty of form and foliage and profusion and 
variety of flowers. It is abundant in the moun¬ 
tain regions of the eastern United States, often 
forming impenetrable thickets in the northern 
Alleghanies. It is also common in India. Sev¬ 
eral species have been domesticated and a great 
variety of very handsome flowers produced by 
cultivation. 

RhiTbarb. [E. Rha, Volga; barbarus, foreign.] 
A plant ( Rheum rhciponticum ) brought from the 
banks of the Volga, the stalks of which are used 
as food. The stalk is large and fleshy, and very 
juicy ; the blade is broad, with large veins run¬ 
ning from the foot-stalk. The stalk and veins are 
smooth, and covered with a fine thin skin easily 
removable when the leaf is young. It is used as 
a substitute for fiuit in pies and tarts, and the 
juice is pressed into wine. Rhubard of medicine 
is the dried root of a wild plant ( Rheum officinale ) 
now chieflv brought from China and Tibet. 

Ribbon or Rib'and. [Celt.] A long, narrow web 
of silk or other material used for trimming dres¬ 
ses^ Ribbons are chiefly made at St. Etienne in 
France, Basle in Switzerland, Coventry in Eng¬ 
land, Crefeld in Prussia, and Paterson, New 



THE AGE OF REPTILES. 

Jersey. French and Swiss ribbons are hand¬ 
made ; English ribbons are machine-made. Ital¬ 
ian and French silk is used in making the best 
ribbons.— Ribbonjish is a fish of the North Atlan¬ 
tic, 20 feet long. 

Rice. [Fr., from Gk. oryza.] A grain grown in 
warm countries, and forming a food for three- 
fourths of the human race. Rice is a kind of grass, 
having a stalk with several stems, each of which 
















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


127 


bears a cluster of grain. It requires a hot climate 
and abundance of water. The plant is a native 
of the East Indies, and is most largely grown for 
food in India and China, but it is grown also in 
the southern United States and in the south of 
Europe. Its habits of growth have beeu modified 
by cultivation, so that a variety is grown on up¬ 
lands without irrigation. The lowland crops are 
grown -with irrigation on lands where no other 



RICE STARCH UNDER MICROSCOPE. 


crop is possible. Rice flour is used for cakes, 
and rice water is used medicinally. Rice forms 
the chief food of the Chinese and the Hindus. 
It contains in 100 lbs. no less than 76 lbs. of 
btarch, which is largely used in the laundry to 
stiffen linen, etc. 

RFfle. [Dan., to make grooves in.] A gun, or 
small-arm, the inside of whose barrel is rifled 
that is, has spiral grooves cut in it. The effect 
of the grooves is to send the balls swifter and 
straighter. The rifles now used are breech-load¬ 
ers. Cannon are also rifled, with the effect of 
enormously increasing their range and powers 
of destruction. 

Rinderpest. A malignant contagious fever, which 
attacks cattle and other ruminants. It came ori¬ 
ginally from Asia, and has very often appeared 
in Russia, from which it made its way over 
Europe, probably as early as the 4th century. 
There have been various outbreaks of it, causing 
great destruction of cattle. From 1865 to 1870 
it caused great mortality, 130,000 cattle dying in 
France alone in 1870. In 1896 a serious epidemic 
broke out in Africa, extending from Abyssinia to 
South Africa, and decimating the domestic herds, 
while destroying great numbers of wild animals, 
especially antelopes. No cure is known for this 
disease, and the only safety is to kill and bury 
all infected animals. 


Riv'et. [Fr., from Scand., to fasten.] A pin or 
bolt of metal passed through two flat pieces of 
metal, wood, etc,, and fastening them together by 
its being hammered flat at both ends .—Butt riv¬ 
eting. The ends or edges of plates form a butt 
joint, and are fastened together by being riveted 
to a narrow strip which covers the joint. Lap- 
riveting. The ends or edges of plates overlap, 
and are riveted together.— Chain-riveting. The 
rivets in two or more rows are set behind each 
other. 

Roach. [AS.] A European fresh-water fish of the 
Carp family, to which the dace and chub belong, 
of silver-white color, with a greenish back. The 
scales of this fish and the bleak are said to be 
employed in the manufacture of artificial pearls. 
Gold-fish belong to a similar family. 

Rob / in. [From Robert .] A name given to red¬ 
breasted birds of different countries belonging to 
the thrush family. The robin of the United 
States is a common and favorite bird, its song 
being among the sweetest of those heard in our 
groves and orchards. The robin-redbreast of 
Europe is a smaller bird, which seems to delight 
in the presence of man, often entering his dwel¬ 
ling. It sometimes takes up its abode iu houses 
in cold weather, while it warbles its song when 
the sun shines or the fire burns brightly. 

Rock / et. [Ital., from rock, a distaff.] A fire-work 
sent up through the air and used as a signal. The 
rocket is projected by the force of expanded 
gases liberated by the combustion of such ingre¬ 
dients as nitre, charcoal, and sulphur. Congreve 
rocket, invented bv Sir William Congreve, is 
armed with shells or case-shot, or with a fiery 
composition. 

Rock=oil. (See Petroleum.') 

Roco / co. A florid style of ornamentation which 
was common in Europe in the latter part of the 
eighteenth century. 

Ro'dent. [U. rodens , gnawing.] A gnawing 
mammal, as a mouse or rat. They are all small, 
but very prolific, so that no mammalia are so 
generally distributed. Their teeth are peculiar 
and of two kinds—incisors and molars. The 
enamel remaining, while the body of the tooth 
wears away, gives it a peculiar curved shape. 

Roe. [Scand.] The spawn or eggs of fishes and 
amphibians, especially when enclosed in a mem¬ 
brane. 

Roe. [AS.] The smallest kind of European deer. 
Its antlers are small, with three short branches. 
It remains faithful to one partner for life. 

Roent/gen Ray. On December 4,1895, Professor 
Roentgen, of Wurzburg, Prussia, published a 
description of a remarkable new ray of light he 
had discovered, which he called the “X-ray.” 
This light flows from a Crookes tube, which is a 
glass tube exhausted of air, and traversed by an 
electric current. From the interior glow in this 
tube there flows a ray differing from ordinary 
light, since it fails to pass through some trans¬ 
parent substances and readily penetrates many 
opaque substances. It passes easily through 
human flesh, and less easily through bone, so 
that the bones of the body may be photographed 


703 





128 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


as dark shadows. An important fact is that any 
foreign substance in the body, as a bullet, a 
needle, etc., is revealed by the ray, and its exact 
location fixed. This renders the Roentgen Ray 
of the greatest value in many surgical operations. 

Rook. [AS.] A bird like the crow, but smaller, 
with the base of its beak bare of feathers and 
quite white, and with a harsh, croaking voice. It 
feeds on grubs and worms, but will pull up new 



SIGNET RINGS. 


grass and potatoes, pick turnips, and steal eggs. 
Rooks are sociable birds, and build their nests 
together and live as one family. They usually 
settle in a clump of high trees, which is called a 
rookery . 

Ro'sary. A series of prayers marked by beads, 
consisting of fifteen decades, each containing ten 
avemarias , a paternoster, and a gloria patri. 

Rose. [L. rosa.] A shrub, usually with prickly 
stems, and large, beautiful, and sweetly-smelling 
flowers. The varieties of roses are generally 
classed as damasks, banksia, noisette, perpetuals, 
French, Chinese, Scotch, celestial, and moss 
roses. All may be propagated by layers, some by 
budding or grafting, and many by separating the 
roots. The moss rose came from Holland, the 
cabbage rose from Caucasus, and the yellow rose 
from Persia. In France the cultivation of the 
rose is a science. The varieties are great; of the 
tea rose alone there are 122 kinds. The Cherokee 
rose is a native of China, which has run wild in 
the American States. The sweet brier has also 
escaped from cultivation, and is found in the 
hedgerows. The oldest rose-bush in the world 
is at Heldersheim, in Germany. The trunk is as 
large as a man’s body ; and in the year 1079 a 
framework was put up to support its branches. 
It is supposed to be over 1,000 years old.— Otto 
of roses is an oil distilled from petals or leaves of 
damask or musk roses. The best otto of roses is 
made from Cashmere roses in India. 

Rose / mary. [R. ros, dew ; and mar inns, belong¬ 
ing to the sea.] A small shrub, w r ith narrow 
grayish leaves, a fragrant smell, and bitter taste. 
It is an emblem of constancy. This shrub grows 
wild along the Mediterranean coast, and is found 
in Asia Minor and in China. An essential oil 
distilled from it is used in perfumery and medi¬ 
cine. 

Rose / wood. A leguminous wood of a dark-red 
color streaked with black, with a faint smell like 
that of the rose. The finest rosewood conies 
from South America, especially from Brazil, but 
also from Jamaica, New South Wales, and the 
704 


Bast Indies. The best is costly, and is chiefly 
used as veneering for cabinet-work. 

Ros / in. The hard amber-colored resin left after 
distilling the volatile oil of turpentine. 

Ros / truin. [R. rostrum , a beak.] The platform 
in the Roman Forum from which orators spoke 
to the people ; so called because it was near 
where the beaks of ships taken in war were fixed. 
Also now any platform for speaking from. 

Row'an Tree. [Scand.] The mountain ash, re¬ 
lated to the apple, with pinnate leaves and small 
white flowers, followed by little bright-red 
berries. 


Rubble. [Old Fr.] Rough stones from the 
quarry, or stones broken or worn with water, 
used for coarse building. 

Ru'bric. [R. rubric, red chalk.] A part written 
or printed in red to distinguish it from the rest 
on a page. 

Ru'by. [Fr., from B. rubeus , red.] A precious 
stone of a blood-red color, ranking in hardness 
next to the diamond. It is a red crystallized 
variety of corundum. The finest are Oriental 
rubies brought from Burmah, and are more valu¬ 
able than diamonds of the same size. They occur 
in crystalline limestone, and consist of pure 
alumina, w 7 ith the color of pigeons’ blood. The 
spinal ruby consists of alumina and magnesia, 
and is found in Ceylon and Siam, varying from 
deep red to rose red in color. 

Rum. A kind of spirit made from the juice of 
the sugar-cane or molasses. It is largely made 
in the West Indies and New England. Jamaica 
ruin is colored reddish brown with caramel. 
Rum is sometimes flavored with pine-apple. 

Ru'm inant. [B. ruminatus. ] An animal that 

chews the cud. (See Digestion .) Ruminant 
animals include the camel, deer, antelope, goat, 
sheep, and cattle. 

Rupee'. [Sans., silver.] An Indian silver coin 
worth 16 annas, the value of which varies with 
the price of silver. 

Rush. [AS.] A plant of many varieties, with a 

r o u n d 
p o i 11 ted 
stem and no 
leaves, 
whichgrows 
in moist 
ground. Be¬ 
fore carpets 
came into 
use, the 
floors of 
houses were 
strewn with 
rushes, and 
the wicks of 



SANDALS. 

candles were made from the pith of rushes. 
Chair-bottoms and baskets are sometimes woven 
of them. 

Rust. [AS.] Blight , mildczv, and rust are 

names given to diseases which attack the stems 
and leaves of cereals and other plants. They 
first appear as small discolored patches, and 
gradually spread over the entire plant. This 

























































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


129 


discoloration is due to the presence of germs or 
seeds of the rust fungus in the first stage of life. 
These germs or seeds, after several stages have 
been passed, settle upon the plants and live on 
their juices, thus doing much injury .—Rust is 
also the reddish-brown coating formed by oxida¬ 
tion on the surface of iron when exposed to a 
moist atmosphere. 

Rye. [AS.] A kind of grain, and the hardiest of 
the cereals cultivated in the British Isles. It 
looks like wheat, but its ears are bearded like 
those of barley, but not quite so long. The grain 


is brown, and coarser than wheat. It will grow 
on poor sandy soils, and is able to bear a severe 
climate. Rye is sown in autumn. The “ black 
bread” eaten by the peasantry of Russia and 
North Germany, and the rye-cakes of Sweden, 
are made from the rye which is very extensively 
grown on the sandy plains of those countries. 
Much whiskey is made from rye in the United 
States, and it is used with barley for making gin 
in Holland. Rye-straw is tough, and is not good 
for cattle, but is used for hats, stuffing beds, or 
thatching. 



Sa'ble. [Fr., from Russian.] A small flesh-eat¬ 
ing animal akin to the weasel, found in Siberia 
and northern countries, and valued for its glossy 
fur, which consists of a soft under-wool over¬ 
topped with longer hair. In summer the fur is 
brownish, with gray spots on the head and neck ; 
but in winter it is deep rich brown and almost 
black. Winter fur is most valued, and is worn 
by ladies and by officials on their robes. The 
tail is made into artists’ pencils and brushes. The 
sable spends most of the day in trees, and hunts 
at night. Its food is chiefly hares and small 
game. This animal is now getting scarce in 
Siberia, where it used to be hunted l3y Russian 
exiles. 

Sa / bre. [Fr., from Ger.] A sword with a broad 
heavy blade, thick at the back ,and curved slightly 
toward the point, used by cavalry. 

Sac'charin or Sac/charine. [Fr., from R. sac- 
charum, sugar.] Saccharin is a product of coal- 
tar, and it is said to be three hundred times 
sweeter than suga. It is a valuable therapeutic, 
and has been recently used in the preservation of 
fruits. 

Saddle. [AS., from root of sit.'] A seat generally 
made of leather, fastened on a horse’s back. The 
frame of the saddle is usually of wood aud iron, 
made to fit the horse’s back, and is called the 
tree. In the common saddle the tree is raised a 
little in front to form the pommel, and behind is 
a ridge called the cantel, the seat and flaps being 
made of tanned pig-skin. The stirrups are fas¬ 
tened to the tree. When the saddle is put on the 
horse, the girths are passed under the horse, and 
buckled tightly to straps. Side-saddles , used by 
women, have only one stirrup, in which the left 
foot is placed ; and on the pommel are two horns, 
between which the right knee is placed. 

Safe. [Fr., from R., salvus , safe.] A strong room 
or box for keeping money and valuables safe 
from fire and thieves. Safes are double wrought- 
iron chests, with plaster of Paris and mica or 
alum to resist heat. Burglar-proof safes are usu¬ 
ally fitted with locks (q-v.) difficult to pick. 

Safe / ty=lamp. A lamp for giving light in mines, 
covered with wire-gauze, to prevent the light 
from setting fire to explosive gas; called also 
Davy lamp. (See Lamp.) 

Safe / ty=valve. A valve in a steam engine ar¬ 
ranged to permit the steam to escape when it 
exceeds a certain pressure. The valve is held in 

45 


place by a weight attached to the end of a lever, 
and so adjusted that a fixed pressure of steam 
will lift it, aud open a passage for the steam. 

Saf'fron. A yellow coloring matter, obtained 
from the stigma, or flower centre, of a species of 
crocus. It is costly on account of the labor of 
picking the small stigmas. It has a pleasant per¬ 
fume, and is used to color and flavor confection¬ 
ary, cheese, and butter. Saffron tea is some¬ 
times given to canary birds when shedding their 
feathers. 

Sage. [Fr., from R. salus .] A grayish-green herb 
much used in cookery and medicine ; so called 
from its supposed healing powers. It has a sweet 
smell and a bitter taste. The scarlet sage and 
Mexican red and blue sage are cultivated in 
America for ornament. 

Sa / go. [Malay.] The prepared pith of a tree 
called the sago-palm, which grows in China, 
Japan, and the East Indies. The tree is cut 
down when fourteen or fifteen years old, the 
trunk split open, and the pith scraped out aud 
washed in water. It is then squeezed through a 

sieve and 
dried, and is 
called pearl 
sago, and 
used for pud¬ 
dings. In 100 
lbs. of sago 
there are 83 
lbs. of starch. 
Much false 
sago is made 
in Germany 
from potato 
starch. 

Sal'ad. [Fr., 
from Ital. sal- 
ata , salted .] 
Raw herbs cut 
up and dressed 
with salt, vine¬ 
gar, oil, etc., 
as a relish for 
food. 

Salamander. [Fr., from R. or Gk.] A kind of 
reptile with four feet, long body, and long tail, 
but without scales. It is related to the frog, and 
was once supposed to be able to live in fire. 

7°5 



SALMON LEAPING. 





















130 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


Sali'va. [L,.] A liquid of an alkaline re-action 
which, secreted by the salivary glands from the 
blood, moistens the mouth and mixes with the food 
to help digestion. The salivary glands are excited 
to pour out saliva by the movement of the jaws 
in chewing and in talking. Touching any part of 
the mouth will cause saliva to flow. The sight, 
smell, or taste of food when one is hungry will 
“ make the mouth water.” When food is eaten 
hastily, and not moistened with saliva, the 
stomach is disarranged, and indigestion follows. 
Its action in digestion is due to the presence of 
ptyalin. 

Salmon. [R. salmo.] A large fish much valued 
as food. Its color is bluish-gray, shading into 
a silvery-white underneath, and marked with 
black spots on the upper part of the body. Sal 
mon are found on the European and American 
coasts of the Atlantic, passing up the rivers to 
deposit their eggs. On these journeys they pass 
waterfalls and other obstacles ; but several Brit¬ 
ish and Norwegian rivers contain salmon-leaps 
or fish-stairs, up which the salmon leap from 
step to step. After resting on the spawning- 
ground for eight or ten days, the females return 
to the sea. The eggs left in the gravel hatch out. 
The young fish increase little while in fresh 
water, but on reaching the sea they grow quickly. 
Salmon are now reared in farms or breeding- 
troughs, with fresh water flowing freely through 
them. A salmon usually weighs io or 12 pounds, 
but fish up to 30 or even 40 pounds have occa¬ 
sionally been caught. Salmon-trout and bull¬ 
trout are two kinds of salmon. Parr are salmon 
fry ; smelt is a young salmon ; grilse , a young 
salmon returned from the sea. The common 
salmon of Europe and the Atlantic is the Salmo 
salar. The salmon of the North Pacific belongs 
to a different genus, the Oncorhynchus ; and the 
quinnat, the largest of these, does not feed in 
fresh water, and dies after spawning. They are 
caught in immense numbers in the rivers from 
California to Alaska, many millions of pounds 
being canned annually. 

Salt. [AS.] A substance found in the earth, 
and very abundant in sea-water, used for season¬ 
ing and preserving food. It is composed of 
sodium combined with chlorine. Salt is impor¬ 
tant as an article of food, and the lower animals 
like it; farmers place lumps of rock-salt in their 
fields for the sheep and the cows to lick. I11 
North America there are certain places where 
the rocks contain much salt, and w 7 ild animals 
flock in great numbers to these places, which are 
known as “ salt-licks.” Salt forms solid beds in 
the crust of the earth, just as coal does ; and in 
this state it is known as rock-salt. Rain-water, 
sinking into the ground, dissolves much of the 
rock-salt; and if a well be dug down to this salt 
water, it can be pumped up, and the salt obtained 
from it by evaporation crystallizes in cube shapes. 
The salt water is called brine. Salt can also be 
obtained by evaporating sea-water. In the Car¬ 
pathian Mountains there are beds of salt from 
600 to 700 feet thick. Near Cracow there is a 
wonderful salt-mine over a thousand feet deep, 
706 


divided into floors, galleries, and passages, all ot 
salt. One division is so like a church that it is 
called St. Anthony’s Chapel. It has an altar, 
pulpit, and statues. Another room has a tomb 
made of salt. The passages are estimated to 
extend 300 miles. Rock salt is abundant in 
many parts of the United States, and great 
quantities of brine are pumped up and evaporated 
in New York. Rarge deposits exist in Michigan, 
Louisiana, Utah, Nevada, and elsewhere. 

Salt/petre, Nitre, or Rock=salt. [Salt; and Gk. 
Petra , a rock.] A kind of white salt made up of 
nitric acid and potash, often found oozing 
from rocks. It is Litter in taste, and is called 

potassium nitrate. It is 
found in caves or got 
from the soil in Egypt, 
Persia, and India. Its 
principal use is in mak¬ 
ing gunpowder and in 
preparing nitric acid, 
sulphuric acid, in mak¬ 
ing fireworks, and medi¬ 
cinally for rheumatism. 
Chili saltpetre is a 
sodium nitrate, which 
cannot be used in mak¬ 
ing gunpowder, but from 
which nitric acid is got. 
Salts. Salts, in chem¬ 
istry, are the neutral or 
other compounds formed by the union of an acid 
ami a base. 

Sanch [AS.] Fine particles of stone on the sea¬ 
shore or in deserts, made by the wearing out of 
rocks, especially of quartz, silica, or flint. River- 
sand and sand from pits are usually sharper than 
sea-sand. The colors of sand are made by various 
oxides of iron. Sand is used in, making glass, 
mortar, cement, sand-paper, molds for casting, 
and in sawing stones and grinding cutlery.— 
Sand-blast is a stream of sharp sand let fall from 
a high box on a plate of glass to cut it and make 
it look like ground glass. Metals and stones 
may also be cut by the sand-blast. The parts not 
requiring to be cut or engraved are covered with 
leather, paper, or wax. 

San r da!wood. [Fr., from Sans., and wood.'] A 
yellowish heart wood of trees in the East Indies 
and the Hawaiian and South Sea islands. It has 
a pleasant smell. 

Sand / piper. A numerous family of game birds 
living on the sea-shore. The European kinds 
include the common sandpiper, called also sum¬ 
mer-snipe, the dunlin, the knot, and the ruff. 
Some small plovers are called sandpipers. In 
North America are the pectoral, the purple, the 
red-breasted, and the spotted sandpipers. 

Sandstone. A rock of sand pressed together. 
Old and New Red Sandstone are two extensive 
series of British rocks, the one below and the 
other above the coal-measures. The terms 
Permian and Triassic have taken the place of the 
name New Red Sandstone. Flexible sandstone 
is a fine-grained variety of itacolumite, which, 

. owing to scales of mica, is quite flexible. 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


131 


Sand'wich. Two thin slices of bread with meat, 
cheese, or butter between them ; first used by the 
Earl of Sandwich in the 18th century so that he 
need not leave the gaming-tables. 

San talin. A substitute for butter extracted from 
suet. 

Sap. [AS., saep.] The fluid which flows through 
plants. The raw or crude sap consists of much 
water, with plant food dissolved in it, entering 
through the roots. It rises through the outer 
part of the stem into the leaves, and is there 
converted into various lion-nitrogenous sub¬ 
stances, composed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen, such as starch, gum, sugar, cellu¬ 
lose, and oil. In the sap there are also formed 
substances containing nitrogen, such as albumen 
and gluten. These substances are distributed to 
every part of the plant, helping to form and to 

^ fill new cells, and so aiding the life of the plant. 

Sap'phire. [Fr., from Gk., from Heb.] A precious 
stone of a bright-blue color, next in hardness to 
the diamond, and next to the ruby in value. It is 
composed ofalumina, colored differently. The red 
sapphire is the Oriental ruby, the green sapphire 
is the emerald, the yellow the topaz, and the 
violet is the amethyst. Colorless or white sap¬ 
phires are sold as diamonds. The finest blue 
sapphires come from Ceylon. 

Sardine. [Fr., from L,. sardina.] A small pil¬ 
chard or herring found near the island of Sar¬ 
dinia, and preserved in oil for food. It has a 
slim body, and is greenish blue on the back and 
silvery white below. It is also caught off the 
north-west coast of France and in the Baltic. 
American sardines are young herrings or men¬ 
haden. The sardines appear in large shoals in 
spring, and are caught in nets which are large 
enough to let their heads through, but catch 
them by the gills and fins. They are washed, 
scraped, salted, heads and gills cut off, washed 
again, and dried. They are then cooked in olive 
oil aud dried again, and then packed in tin cases 
with boiling oil. Sprats, roach, and dace are 
sometimes put up in this way. 

SarsapariFla. The dried roots of several Ameri¬ 
can climbing evergreens, reaching from Mexico 
to South America. It is much used as a medi¬ 
cine. There is none of it in the sarsaparilla 
syrup drank in soda water. 

Sas'safras. [Cor. from saxifrage , which now 
denotes a different kind of plants.] A kind of 
tree or plant, with aromatic properties, of the 
laurel kind, and allied to cinnamon, cassia, and 
camphor. Every part of the plant has a pleasant 
fragrance and a sweetish aromatic taste, which is 
strongest in the bark of the root. It occasionally 
grows to a height of 50 or 60 feet, and has a 
grayish and deeply-furrowed trunk. It is some¬ 
times called the ague-tree. Its bark is used in 
dyeing, but also especially the bark of the root 
medicinally for rheumatism. The leaves are 
used in making root beer. The wood is tough, 
and does not decay. 

Sat/in. [Fr., from L,. seta, silk.] A kind of 
closely-woven silk cloth with a glossy surface. 
It is an elegant material. The woof, or cross¬ 


wise threads, passes over several threads of the 
warp at a time. The fabric is then passed be¬ 
tween heated iron rollers, which give a smooth, 
glossy appearance. 

Sat/in = wood. A hard fragrant wood like yellow ma¬ 
hogany, from the East and West Indies. It takes 
a lustrous finish, and is used in cabinet-work. 

Sat/urn. The planet next beyond Jupiter, and 
almost twice as distant, it being 875,000,000 miles 
from the sun. In size it comes next to Jupiter, its 
diameter being 73,000 miles. Its year is equal to 
nearly 29^ earthly years, and it rotates on its 
axis in 10 hours. In addition to its nine moons— 
one of them recently discovered—-it has a remark¬ 
able feature in its two—or perhaps five—wonder¬ 
ful rings, which surround it at a distance of some 
20,000 miles. These rings are supposed to be 
made up of meteors rotating in company around 
the planet. 

Savan / nah. An extensive open grassy plain in 
the Southern States. (See Prairie .) 

Sauer=kraut. A salted preparation of cabbage 
much esteemed in Germany, and largely used in 
the United States. It is thought to be very 
wholesome aud easily digested, and is prepared 
in large quantities for winter use. 

Savoy'. [Fr.] A kind of cabbage with curled 
leaves, originally from Savoy, much cultivated 
for winter use. 

Saw. [AS. saga, from L,. secare, to cut.] A thin 
steel blade with sharp teeth 011 its edge for cut¬ 
ting wood, etc. The chief kinds are the hand¬ 
saw, the cross-cutting saw, and the circular-saw, 
which is worked by machinery. The blades are 
of steel, the teeth being punched out by ma¬ 
chinery, then ground and set and cleaned by 
emery. The saiv-gin is the same as the cotton- 
gin, used in clearing the cotton fibre of its seeds. 

SaxFfrage. [I v . saxum, stone ; and frangere, to 
break.] A kind of plant growing in the crevices 
of rocks or on high hills, once supposed to have 
the power of dissolving or breaking stone in the 
bladder. They are mostly perennial herbs. 

Scale. [AS. shell or husk.'] One of the thin plates 
covering the body of a fish or of a reptile. 
Ganoid scales of fish like the gar aud sturgeon 

are an inner layer of 
bone and a n outer 
layer of shining 
enamel arranged to 
form a coat of mail. 
The Perch family 
have comb-1 ike 
scales. Those of the 
herring and salmon 
are thin, with con- 
centric lines of 
growth, and serrated 
on the margin, and 
are called cycloid 
scales. 

Scale. [L,. scala, aladder.] Ascale in music, is a 
series of tones from the keynote to the octave. A 
chromatic scale includes 8 tones and 5 lalf-tones. 
A diatonic or major or minor scale has eight 
sounds or tones. 

707 



SCALLOP. 













ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Seal'lop. [Old Fr.] A shell-fish radially ribbed, 
and having the edges of its two-valved shell 
formed into a series of small curves. The shell 
is light, and the fish has a little air-bag which 
enables it to float. It abounds oil the English 
and American coasts, and on the shores of Pales¬ 
tine. Formerly the shell was used to cook 
oysters in. An edible scallop is found on the 
Atlantic coast of the United States. The shell 
of the Palestine species was formerly worn by 
pilgrims to show that they had visited the Holy 
Land. 

Scar'let = runner. A bean-plant with scarlet 
flowers which clings to and runs up any support 
it can reach. 

SchoorFer. [AS., to glide.] A vessel with two 
or more masts, fore and-aft rigged, or square- 
rigged on the fore-mast top-sail. The first 
schooner is said to have been built in Massa¬ 
chusetts in 1713. 

Scissors. [Old Fr.] A pair of blades movable 
on a pin through the middle of both, which cut 
when the sharp edges are pressed together. The 
best are made of cast steel or shear steel. Often 
called a pair of scissors. 

Scor'pion. [L.] An arachnidan somewhat like a 
lobster, having a poisonous sting in its tail. It has 
a flattened body, and a long, slender lower abdo¬ 
men, formed of six movable segments, the last of 
which ends in its sting. Its poison causes pain, 
but is seldom destructive of life. Scorpions are 
found in warm climates. 

Screech=owI. An owl which utters a shrill cry, 
and is also called the barn-owl. The screech-owl 
is small, and of a gray or reddish color. 

Screw. [Old Fr.] A round piece of wood or 
metal with a sloping ridge called a thread run¬ 
ning round it for fastening things together. As 
a mechanical power the screw is a modification 
of the inclined plane. The flipper of the sea- 
bear, the wing of the insect, of the bat, and of 
the bird are screws in principle, resembling the 
blade of the propeller, and they twist and un¬ 
twist during oscillation. 

Screw / =driver. A tool for driving in screws 
It has a thin end to enter in the slot or nick in 
the head of the screw. 

ScuFtle. [AS , from L. scutella, a tray.] A broad 
basket or a vessel for holding coals. In nautical 
phrase, a small opening or hatchway in the deck 
of a ship large enough to admit a man. 

Scythe. [AS.] A large curved blade fastened to 
a long handle, for cutting grass, corn, or crops on 
small farms. Scythe-blades are forged, and then 
ground on grindstones. The haft is made of bent 
wood, with two handles. 

Sea. [AS.] A large body of salt water smaller 
than an ocean, though the term-is often applied 
to the whole ocean. The ocean covers nearly 
8-iiths of the area of the globe, and its depth 
averages 2,000 fathoms. The salts in the sea are 
on an average 3]^ percent., the remainder being 
water. Of the salts, nearly 78 per cent, is chlo¬ 
ride of sodium, 11 per cent, is chloride and 
bromide of magnesium, and 10 per cent, sul¬ 
phates of lime, magnesium and potash, with a 


very small quantity of carbonate of lime. The 
usual tint of the sea is bluish-green ; but the 
color of the soil or the color of the sky, and other 
local circumstances, produce many variations. 
The sea is inhabited by a vast number and vari¬ 
ety of animals, from the simplest forms to the 
fish, reptiles like the turtle, and mammals like 
the whales and seals. Many forms are found at 
great depths in the water, some of these being 
phosphorescent; some are blind, others have 
very large eyes. There are also many small phos¬ 
phorescent animals on the surface, so abundant 
in places that the ocean seems like a sea of fire. 

Sea / =anemone. ( Actinozoa , orray-like animals.) 
A soft, pulpy polyp with a flower-like or ray-like 
fringe of tentacles, in the middle of which is the 
mouth, leading into a hollow sac or stomach. It is 
of the shape of a column, with a sucking surface 
in the base that enables it to move much like a 
snail, but more slowly. From the tentacles are 
thrown small darts, by which it seizes any crab or 
worm or small fish for food. 

Seal. [AS., from L. sigillum, a seal.] An en¬ 
graved stamp for marking wax or wafer to con¬ 
firm or make sure. 

Seal. [AS.] A flesh-eating animal found in great 
numbers lying on the icebergs or swimming 
in the waters of both north and south polar 
regions. Their sharp-pointed teeth enable them 
to catch the slippery fish on which they feed. 
The different kinds of seals varv in size and in 
thcscplor of their fur. The head, shoulders and 



SOLAR CORONA. 

chest are round, and the body tapers towards the 
tail. All their feet are webbed ; but the webs of 
the back feet can be folded up like a parasol, so 
that they are able to lie close to the body. The 
webs of the front feet are always stretched out. 
As the seal lives almost entirely in the water, it 
has the power of closing both its eyes and its 
cars. Its body, too, is thickly covered with 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


133 


double fur, which is kept constantly oiled, so that 
the fur next the body is never wet. Several species 
are much hunted for their oils and skins, inclu¬ 
ding the common seal, found in the Atlantic and 
the Pacific, and the harp .seal, abundant in Arctic 
waters. There are other species in the north 
Atlantic, while in the southern ocean is found 
the great sea-elephant, so called from its size and 
the elongation of its nose into a short proboscis. 
The males of this species are 20 feet long, the 
females little more than 10 feet. There arc other 
species known as sea-leopards in the southern 
waters, while in the north Pacific are the sea- 
lions and sea-bears. Both of these have long 
hair, but the sea-bears have also a soft and deli¬ 
cate fur, which is highly valued as the seal-skin 
of commerce. The northern fur seal has its 
breeding grounds on some small islands in the 
Behring Sea. These belong to the United States, 
and only a limited number are permitted to be 
killed yearly. The killing of these seals in the 
open seas by Canadian seal fishers, gave rise to a 
serious international question between Great Bri¬ 
tain and the United States. 

Seal / ing=wax. Wax used for sealing letters or 
for being marked with a seal. Gummed envelopes 
have almost taken the place of wax for closing 
envelopes. Wax is made of lac mixed with 
turpentine and resin ; black wax is colored with 
ivory black, and red with cinnabar. 

Seanettle. A jelly-fish or medusa. 

Seaurchin. (Echinus.) A kind of shell fish or 
sea-egg covered with prickles like a chestnut 
bur, and closely related to the star-fish. The 
shells are of the thickness of egg-shells, and have 
rows of dots or knobs with lace-work between, 
and are made up of hundreds of plates joined 
like mosaic work. The animals do not cast 
their shells like crabs, but the flesh secretes lime 
from sea water, and deposits it round the plates, 
which increase uniformly. The spines are beam i- 
fully carved columns with ball-and-socket joints 
on the knobs. There are also protruding through 
holes double rows of tube-like feet, which are 
supplied with water by a tube opening at the top 
of the shell. In the centre of the shell is a tube¬ 
like stomach opening to the top of the shell. 
The sea-urchin has also a mouth, intestines, 
heart, and five teeth. There are many kinds. 

Searchlight. A11 electric arc-light of great 
candle-power, used with a parabolic projector 
which throws its rays for many miles. It is of 
great importance 011 a naval vessel, in enabling 
the captain to discover an approaching enemy at 
night. One shown at the Chicago Exposition of 
1893 could be seen 85 miles away, and fine print 
was read by its light at 8 miles’ distance. 

Secretary-bird. The crane-vulture of South 
Africa and the West Indies. It is easily tamed, 
but attacks and kills poisonous snakes. Its tail 
is very long, with two long middle feathers. It 
has a crest on the back of its head of six pairs of 
feathers, like the pens behind the ears of a clerk, 
hence its name. 

Secretion. A substance separated by any one of 
the glands from the blood, either to be used for 


some purpose in the body or to be discharged as 
useless and detrimental. Some of the secretions 
are sweat, saliva, bile, and milk. 

Sedan'. [From Sedan, a town in France.] A 
covered chair for one person, carried by two 
bearers on poles with the hands, and differing 
from palanquins, which are carried on the 
shoulders. There are no carriages in the streets 
of Canton, their absence being supplied by nimble 
sedan bearers. Sedans were introduced into 
England in the seventeenth century. 

Sedge. [AS.] A kind of coarse grass with blades 
shaped like swords, and found in swampy 
ground. It has a triangular jointless stem, 
spiked inflorescence, and long leaves, rough on 
the margin and mid-rib. There are several 
hundred species. 

Seed. [AS.] The part from which a new plant 
grows, consisting of one or more coats or skins 
and the kernel, which is made up of the embryo 
and albumen to feed the embryo. Some albu¬ 
men often forms a part of the embryo. Embryos 



SUN SPOTS. 

are divided into those with one cotyledon or 
seed-leaf, as grasses ; those with two cotyledons, 
as the bean ; and those with more than two, as 
pines. 

Seid'litz. [From Seidlitz , in Bohemia.] A natural 
mineral water ; also a powder having the same 
effect. The seidlitz owes its aperient property 
to the presence of Epsom salts ( q.v .) and a little 
lime. Seidlitz powder has 2 drams of Rochelle 
salt and 40 grains of bicarbonate of soda in one 
paper, and 35 grains tartaric acid in another 
paper. When mixed these effervesce, and make 
a very pleasant draught. 

Selt/zer. (Setters.) A mineral water from 
Selters, in Nassau, Germany. Its chief character 
is a large amount of carbonic acid in combina¬ 
tion with alkaline carbonates, and also some 
common salt. It is useful for dyspepsia. 

709 








134 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Semaphore. [Gk.] A means of signaling in¬ 
vented by Cliappe in 1793. Formerly in railway 
signaling there were three positions: at right 
angles meant stop; at half aright angle, go slowly; 
hanging down, that the line was clear. Nowa¬ 
days semaphores have two positions: when the 
arm is up, danger ; when down, clear. 

Sen'na. [Arab.] The dried leaves of a kind of 
cassia used in medicine as a valuable purgative. 
It grows abundantly in North Africa, in the West 
Indies, and in India. Egyptian senna has a high 
reputation. The leaves are long, lance-shaped, 
or broad, and are sometimes mixed with angel 
leaves, which have no veins. Epsom salts mixed 
with senna is called black draught , and is a 
strong purgative. 

SeiFsitive-plant. The mimosa, a small plant with 
leaves which collapse and fold up when touched. 
It is a native of the American tropics, and is 
about a foot and a half high. 

Se'pia. The cuttle-fish, a family of naked mol¬ 
luscs, with an oval body ana with eight short 
arms surrounding the head, also two long arms 
or tentacles. It has an internal shell or plate 
along the back, known as cuttle-fish bone. It 
also possesses a bladder containing a black liquid, 
which it ejects when pursued, staining the water 
black so that it can escape. This secretion, 
obtained from the ink-bag and dried, is used as 
a pigment called India ink. This, when dissolved 
in potash, boiled and filtered, precipitated by an 
acid, and dried, becomes the pigment sepia. 

Sequo'ia. The giant trees of California. They 
belong to the family of the pines, and are dis¬ 
tinguished by their enormous dimensions, one of 
them having measured 112 feet in circumference 
and supposed to have been 450 feet high. The 
California redwood is a smaller species. 

Serge. [Fr., from L. sericus , silken.] A kind of 
twilled cloth, first made of silk, now 7 chiefly of 
wool, used for garments. 

Ser'pent. [L- serpens , creeping.] An animal 
that creeps or winds about on the ground. They 
are divided into two classes—poisonous, as vipers 
and rattlesnakes ; and snakes that are not poison¬ 
ous, as boas, pythons, and many others. Serpents 
are vertebrate animals, without limbs, but some 
have rudiments of hind limbs. (See Reptile , 
Snake.) They are mostly long and slender, and 
move partly by bending the body into folds, and 
partly by clinging with their scales to rough sur¬ 
faces. Many glide, others burrow, and some 
live in trees. 

Serpentine. A magnesian rock, usually of a 
greenish color, sometimes spotted like a serpent’s 
skin. Precious serpentine is translucent, and of 
a rich oil-gieen color. It is really chrysolite 
altered. 

Set'ter. A dog taught to set or crouch when it 
sees the game. Originally it was a cross between 
a spaniel and a pointer. 

Sew'er. [P'r.] A drain or passage to carry off 
sewage in cities. In Paris the sewers contain tele¬ 
graph and telephone wires, compressed air or gas- 
pipes, etc. The ancient sewer {Cloaca Maxima) 
of Rome was large enough to allow a loaded wagon 
710 


of hay to pass through. Sewerage has become a 
very important part of modern city administra¬ 
tion. 

Sew / ing=machine. A machine for sewing, of 
which the first effective one was introduced by 



DOUBLK TRAP FOR SEWER. 

Elias Howe in 1846. The Howe machine has a 
needle with an eye near the point. The thread 
carried through the cloth by this needle forms a 
loop under the cloth through which a shuttle 
passes. The shuttle contains a bobbin of thread, 
which unwinds as it passes through the loop, and 
the thread thus put through forms the lock-stitch. 
In addition to machines for ordinary sewing, 
there are many special inventions. The most 
important is the cylinder, with cylindrical feed, 
for shoe-work, gloves, pocket-books, and travel¬ 
ing-bags. Sewing-machines are now produced that 
make 2,000 stitches a minute. The button-hole 
machine can make 1,200 stitches per minute. 
Sewing-machines are usually fitted with a treadle, 
to lie-worked by the foot. 

Sex'tant. [L. sextans , a sixth part.] An instru¬ 
ment for measuring angles, mounted on a frame, 
and marked with degrees, minutes, etc. It is 
constructed on the same optical principle as 
Hadley’s quadrant. 

Shad. A fish of the Herring family, but, unlike 
the herring, with a deep notch on the middle of 
the upper jaw, and without teeth on the tongue 
and the roof of the mouth. The Chinese shad is 
an esteemed food-fish. The European shad is 
little valued for food. The American is the 
choicest of food-fishes, and ranks highest among 
American fishes. It is twenty inches long, is 
bluish and silvery in color, and is found abun¬ 
dantly in the rivers of the Atlantic coast of the 
United States. 

Shaddock. A fruit of the Orange and Lemon 
family, but much larger. It is native to China 
and India, but is now grown in the West Indies. 
It is better for preserving than eating, though 
now, under the name of grape-fruit, it is much 
used as a dessert fruit. 

Shagreen'. A kind of leather made from the 
skins of horses, wild asses, and camels, and so 
grained as to leave on it little grains or pimples. 
These are caused by forcing into the moist skin 
the hard seeds of an Asiatic plant. Shagreen is 
made at Astrakan, Russia, and other places. It 
is used for covering sword scabbards, instrument 
cases, etc. 

Shale. [Ger., akin to scale. A rock easily split 
into slabs. Bituminous shale is impregnated with 
bitumen, and often accompanies coal. 























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


135 


Sham'rock. [Celt.] A three-leaved plant like 
clover ; the national emblem of Ireland. 

Shark. A large, fierce, and powerful fish, called the 
tiger of the ocean. It sometimes reaches a length 
°f 35 feet. It has a strong, stout body, and a tail 
of irregular shape, its upper section being longer 
than its lower. Its skeleton does not consist of 
bone, but of hard gristle; instead of scales its skin 
is set with hard knobs, and the gill slits on the side 
of the neck have no covering. Its mouth is on the 
underside of its head, and it has to turn before bit¬ 
ing. It has several rows of teeth pointing backward 
and imbedded in the lining of the mouth. The fe¬ 
male lays two eggs, with leathery cases, that have 
strings at each of the four corners. (See Egg'.) 
The sharks are voracious, and in nearly every 
case carnivorous. Some sharks, as the basking 
shark and the whale shark, grow to an enormous 
size. Most sharks are harmless to man, but some 
species, as the white and the blue sharks, will 
attack and devour man. Another species, the 
man-eater shark, found in all tropical and tem¬ 
perate seas, grows to a length of 36 feet. 

Shawl. [Per.] A woven or knitted covering for 
the shoulders, of wool, cotton, silk, or other 
textile material. India shawls are made from the 
wool of the Cashmere goat. 

Shears. A large pair of scissors used for cutting 
wool from sheep or their skins, also the nap of 
cloth. Shear steel is prepared from blistered 
steel by repeated heating, rolling, and tilting to 
increase its malleability and fineness of texture. 
Two or more poles fastened together at or near 
the top, and steadied by a guy from which pul¬ 
leys and ropes are hung for lifting weights or 
unstepping the lower masts of ships, are called 
shears. 

Sheep. [AS.] A most useful ruminant animal, 
bearing wool, and valued for its flesh. The 

domestic sheep is 
gregarious and 
very timid. Among 
fine wool sheep are 
the merino, the 
French, the Saxon, 
and Silesian; 
among coarse-wool 
sheep are the South 
Down, Cotswold, 
Leicester, and 
Cheviot. The meat 
of the fine-wool 
sheep is not as good 
as that of the coarse-wool sheep. The merino 
sheep is a native of Spain, and valued for its 
wool. It is now much bred in Saxony, Silesia, 
Bohemia, and Australia, while in the United 
States the sheep are 95 per cent, merinos. The 
merino differs from the English sheep in having 
wool on the forehead and cheeks. It is a large 
breed, with heavy horns, and with fine wool 
curling in tendrils. The Cretan sheep has long 
horns; the Turkish sheep has a long fat tail, 
which has often to be supported ; the Asiatic 
sheep has four horns ; the Rocky Mountain sheep, 
a wild species, is called big-horn , from its large- 


sized horns. The aoudad is an African sheep, 
having a long mane on the breast and fore legs. 
The argali and moufflon are wild sheep in Siberia 
and Sardinia respectively. The musmon is a 
wild species in European Turkey. The most 
common mode of cutting up a sheep is—(1) 
shoulder, (2) breast, (3) loin (best end), (4) best 
end neck, (5) scrag end neck, (6) head, (7) loin 
(chump end), (8) leg. 

Shell. [AS.] The outer part of an egg or nut, 
the pod of peas, and the hard covering of some 

kinds 01 ocean animals. 
Shell-fish are usually uni¬ 
valves, having one part; 
or bivalves, having two 
parts joined with a hinge. 
Shells are useful for pro¬ 
tection, and their strength 
and thickness are gener¬ 
ally in proportion to the 
dangers to which the ani¬ 
mal is exposed. Those in- 
habitingshallow places near the shore and exposed 
to the beating of the waves have stronger shells 
than those living in deep water. Fresh-water mol¬ 
luscs generally have delicate shells. The thin layers 
of the oyster-shell are deposits of shelly matter 
showing the lines of growth. All living shells 
have an outer layer of animal matter called epi¬ 
dermis, and they have no lustre till this is taken 
off. Mussel-shells show beautiful blue tints when 
the epidermis is removed. The bodies of all 
sliell-fishes are enclosed by a delicate membrane 
called a mantle, which secretes the shell. Among 
other animals the tortoise has a shell,whose upper 
part is made of the flattened spines of the verte¬ 
brae, and of the ribs, the shelly plates being merely 
portions of the skin hardened into shell. (See 
Tortoise.) There are many other animals that 
form shells, some of them being microscopic. 
Chalk is largely made up of the shells of these. 

SheUJac. \_Lac, gum.] Lac or gum hardened and 
cut into thin plates. (See Lac.) 

Sher 7 ry. A kind of light-colored wine, chiefly 
got from Xeres in Spain. It is colored a straw 
color or amber color by mixing cheap wine and 
boiling it down. 

Shield. [AS.] A frame covered with skin or 
metal, worn on the left arm to keep off blows ; 
also the escutcheon or field on w T hich are placed 
the bearings in coats of arms. 

Shil'ling. [AS.] A silver coin of the value of 12 
pence or twentieth part of a pound. 

ShirFgle. [Cor. from L. scindula, a wooden tile.] 
A thin piece of pine, cypress, cedar, or oak used 
as a roof tile ; loose stones on the sea-shore or in 
the bed of a river. 

ShirFgles. [L. cingulum , a girdle.] A disease 
which spreads round the body like a girdle. 

Ship. A large sea-going vessel with masts and 
sails, particularly one with three masts rigged 
with square sails. It is made up of hull, deck 
{q. v.), masts, yards, bow-sprit and rigging, 
ropes and chains. The front mast is the fore¬ 
mast, the middle mast the main-mast, and the 
hindmost the mizzen-mast, and when a fourth is 

711 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


136 

used, the jigger. A full-rigged ship has from 21 to 
24 sails, and a four-masted ship as many as 36 sails. 

Ship'worm. A mollusc of unusual shape, whose 
scientific name is the Teredo. It looks like a 
worm, being long and slender in body. It bores 
with its cutting shell into wood, and often so 
riddles ship timbers with holes that they crumble 
at a touch. At one time these animals destroyed 
the piles which protected Holland from the sea, 
and a deluge was averted only by great labor and 
expense. They make long tunnels in wood which 
never break into one another. 

Shod'dy. A fibrous fabric made of material ob¬ 
tained by tearing refuse woollen goods, stock¬ 
ings, rags, or druggets. 

Shoe. [AS.] A covering for the foot, usually of 
leather. Fine shoes are made by the hand and 
shaped on a last, or are made by machinery. 


Shoes are largely made by machinery in the 
Eastern States of America, New York, and Phila¬ 
delphia. Wooden shoes , much used by the 
peasantry of Europe, are cheap, durable, and 
comfortable, though clumsy. Shoes made of 
vulcanized rubber, as a protection against damp¬ 
ness, are much worn as over-shoes. 

Shot. [AS.] Bullets or small pellets of lead shot 
from a gun. In war, some are composed of lead, 
wrought iron, or cast iron ; they are spherical or 
oblong, and include hollow, solid, and case-shot. 
Chain-shot was formerly used in naval warfare to 
destroy rigging. Shrapnel shell is a projectile 
for a cannon, consisting of a shell filled with 
bullets and a small bursting charge to scatter 
them at any point while in flight. 

Shov'el. [From shove.~\ A broad, slightly-hol¬ 
lowed blade with a handle for lifting and throw¬ 
ing earth, coal, grain, or other loose substances. 
A steam-shovel is a machine with a scoop or 
scoops, worked by a steam-engine, for excavating 
the earth in railway cuttings. 

Shrew=Mouse. An animal brown in color, and 
very like a common mouse, except that the nose 
is much longer and more pointed, the stomach is 


white, and the tail is square instead of round. 
These little creatures are treated very cruelly. 
I11 some places many people believe that the 
bite of a shrew is poisonous, and that if one 
merely runs over the foot of a man or an animal 
sickness or even death will follow. The Ameri¬ 
can water-shrew has fringed feet. The old 
Egyptians worshipped the shrew. Many mum¬ 
mies of this little creature have been found in 
their temples. In Scotland it is sometimes called 
the ranny ; and also the fetid mouse, it having a 
musky smell, so strong that cats will not eat 
it, though they kill numbers. Tike the mole, it 
makes long tunnels under the earth in search of 
food ; but it makes its nest above the ground in 
any little hole it can find. Some of them are the 
smallest of all mammals. 

Shrimp. [O.E.] A small crustacean, used as food, 
with a thin body, long feelers, and 38 legs of dif¬ 
ferent lengths. Between its head and tail it has thin 
shells in six parts, jointed, and each working into 
its neighbor. Its tail is wing-shaped, and helps 
it to swim or jump through the water, and can 
be expanded or folded up. The larger kinds of 
shrimps are called prawns. 

Shrub. [AS.] A tree-like plant or bush with 
no trunk but with several stems branching di¬ 
rectly from one root. 

Shut/tie. [AS.] That by which the weaver 
shoots or throws the thread from one side of the 
web to the other. The shuttle race is a shelf in 
the loom beneath the warp along which the 
shuttle passes. 

Shuttlecock. A cork with feathers, driven 
back wards and forwards by a light bat in the 
game of shuttlecock and battledore. 

Sick / le. [AS.] A curved steel knife for cutting 
grain. The sickle has one side of the blade 
notched, so as always to sharpen with a serrated 
edge. The reaping-machine has now taken its 
place in harvesting operations. A grass hook or 
sickle is used for trimming grass borders or lawns 
where mowers cannot be used. 

Sien'na. A reddish-brown pigment made from 
earth got from Sienna in Tuscany. This clay is 
colored by the oxides of iron and manganese. 
Burnt sienna is the same clay made redder by the 
action of fire. 

Sieve. [AS.] A vessel with small holes.in the 
bottom for separating fine particles from coarse 
ones. It is usually shallow, with the bottom 
made of wire, hair, or woven into meshes. 
SiFica. [L,.] The substance of which flint, sand, 
and sandstone are chiefly composed. It is the 
oxide of the element silicon, and is very abund¬ 
ant in the form of quartz. Silicates are salts of 
silica or silicic acid. 

Silk. [AS., from E. sericum, silk.] Fine threads 
spun by silk-worms, but especially the Bombyx 
mori. The silk-worm was first kept in China 
for the purpose of manufacturing silk. From 
silk-worms’ eggs, in about a fortnight, little cater¬ 
pillars two inches long and light-colored come 
out; these must be fed with mulberry {q.v.) or 
lettuce leaves. In about a month the caterpillars 



ANCIENT SHOES OR SANDALS. 



































































































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


i37 


reach their full size, and inside their bodies is a 
sticky substance which they convert into silk. 
From two little holes in its head each caterpillar 
draws out flossy threads of the sticky matter, and 
twists them together by means of a gum, winding 
them round and round its body until it is envel¬ 
oped in a ball of silk, called a cocoon , which is 
about as large as a grape or a pigeon’s egg. The 
cocoons from which silk is to be obtained are 
heated in an oven, and the inner balls are thrown 
into warm water, so as to melt the gum ; after 
which the silk from them is wound upon reels, 
and then made up into hanks. It is then known 
as raw silk. The thread of a single cocoon gen¬ 
erally measures about 600 yards, but some cocoons 
have measured 1,200 yards. The silk fibre is 
sent to the factories, or silk-mills, as they are 
called, where it passes through the processes of 
winding, cleaning, twisting, weaving, dyeing, 
and finishing. Silk is made into silk for dresses, 
satin, velvet, ribbon, sarcenet, stockings, fringes, 
buttons, gloves. 

Silk=worm. The worm which spins or produces 
silk threads. For thousands of years the Chinese 
would not allow the eggs of the silk-worm to 
go out of the country. About 550, two monks 
are said to have brought to Europe a few eggs 
hidden in their canes. Now it is quite domesti¬ 
cated, and has been so long fed by man that the 
female is nearly as motionless as if she had no 
wings, and the male merely flutters without 
leaving the ground. 

SiFver. [AS.] A soft, white, shining metal which 
takes on a bright polish. It is found in combination 
as sulphurets and oxides, and with other metals. 
It is widely diffused. Of mineral ores associated 
only 1 in 17 is free from silver, and traces of it 
have been found in sea-water and in organic sub¬ 
stances. Gold never occurs in nature apart from 
silver, and is also found with lead ; yet there is a 
natural distinction between the veins of the sev¬ 
eral metals. The main sources of the world’s 
supply, after the discovery of America, were 
Mexico and South America; but the United 
States on the Pacific slope now yields silver in ex¬ 
cess of any other country. 

SUphon. [Gk.] A bent tube, with one arm longer 
than the other, for drawing off a liquid from one 
vessel to another at a lower level, the shorter 
arm being inserted in the liquid at the higher 
level. 

Skate. [Scand.] A large flat fish more or less 
square in form, and the thinnest of ray fishes in 
proportion to its bulk. It is the largest of ray 
fishes. The European blue or gray skate is used 
as food, and sometimes weighs as much as 200 
lbs. The American smooth or barn-door skate is 
also a large species, measuring often 3 feet across. 
Its nose is conical, and it has sharp spines above 
its eyes. Its jaws are covered with small, sharp- 
pointed teeth. 

Skeleton. [Gk. skeletos, dried.] The bony frame¬ 
work of an animal body. That of the human body 
is composed of 246 separate bones. At the joints 
the bones are joined together by bauds of a sub¬ 
stance like gristle. The use of the skeleton is to 


form a foundation—a kind of stiff framework— 
on which the rest of the body can be built up. 
The bones of the head enclose and protect the 
brain ; the bones of the trunk perform a similar 
office for the organs situated in the chest and the 
abdomen; the bones in the limbs impart rigidity 
to them, and aid us in performing work and in 
moving about. (See Bone.) 

Skin. [Scand.] The natural covering of animals 
and plants. The thickness of the skin varies in 
different parts of the human body, from one- 
eighth to one-fourth of an inch. On the hands 
and feet it becomes thick (or callous), but in 
other parts it is thin and delicate, while at the 
ends of the fingers and toes it grows into thin 
plates called nails. The hairs are only portions 
of the skin grown very long and narrow. The 
skin is composed of tzuo layers : there is a lower, 
thick layer, full of the fine blood-vessels called 
capillaries, and full, too, of nerves—this layer is 
called the dermis; upon it lies an upper, thin 
la)7er, of a horny or scaly nature, in which are no 
blood-vessels and no nerves—this is called the 
epidermis. Just under the dermis there is 
usually a layer of fat. When we examine the 
outside of our skin through a magnifying-glass, 
we can see great numbers of little holes or pores. 
No fewer than 5,000 pores have been counted in 
the skin forming the tip of a finger ; and there 
are about 2 millions of such pores in the skin of 
the whole body. Each pore is the end or open¬ 
ing of a tube called a sweat gland, which goes 
down, through the epidermis, into the dermis, 
where its lower end is coiled up into a little ball 
or knot. The oil glands are very similar to the 
sweat glands. Two are attached to each hair; 
and when the skin is in a healthy state this 
natural oil ought to be sufficient for the hair. 
The oily matter formed by these oil glands runs 
out on the skin and mixes with the sweat. The 
sweat produced by the skin of an ordinary man 
or woman every twenty-four hours measures not 
less than a pint and a quarter, weighing 1lb. 

Skull. [Scand.] The bony case which encloses 
the brain, and with the bones of the face and 
mouth gives shape to the head. It is rounded 
on the top somewhat like the large end of an 
egg, and in front and on the sides it has openings 
for the eyes, the nose, and the ears. The skull 
is made up of compact plates, joined by irregular 
saw-like lines or projections called sutures. The 
upper jaw and the bones of the nose and cheeks 
belong to the skull, and are immovable. The 
use of having the skull in several parts is to 
allow the brain to grow, and to prevent a jar from 
affecting the whole skull. In many fishes the 
skull is almost wholly cartilaginous, with a layer 
of spongy bones. 

Skunk. [Ind.] An animal of the Weasel family, 
found only in America. There are eighteen 
species, of which the common skunk is found in 
the rocky parts of North America. It defends 
itself by giving out liquid secreted in two glands 
near the anus, the scent of which is so nauseous 
and persistent that it forms an effectual defense 
against other animals. It is about the size of a 

7 l 3 




•38 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


cat, with a broad body standing low on the legs. 
Its fur is coarse, the hair long, and the tail long 
and bushy. The claws on the fore feet are strong 
and suited for digging. It preys on mice and 
frogs. It does not run from its foes, its elevated 
white tail being a sufficient warning to all car¬ 
nivorous animals, none of which will attack it. 
The common skunk is black, with white on the 
body and tail. The spotted skunk of Mexico is 
smaller, and is also marked with black and white. 
The skunk is hunted for its fur, which is in con¬ 



siderable demand, but the hunter must be careful 
to avoid alarming the animal and causing it to ; 
discharge its obnoxious secretion. 

Sky / Iark. A bird which nests in the grass, but 
rises high in the air, singing as it rises. (See 
Lark.) The Australian skylark is a pipit, and 
though it rises it lacks the song of the true lark. 

Slag. [Scand.] The dross of melted mineral, or 
cinders from a volcano. 

Slate. [Fr.] A kind of rock which splits into 
thin layers very readily. The largest slate quar¬ 
ries in the world are in Wales. Welsh slates are 
lightest and best. They are used for covering roofs, 
for cisterns, for mantelpieces, and for writing 
upon. Slate is very useful for roofing purposes, 
since it is cheap, light, and impervious to water. 
Slates are fastened to the rafters with nails, and are 
placed so as to overlap one another. 

Sling. [ \S.] A strip of leather, having a cord 
attached to each end, for throwing stones by 
rapidly whirling round the head and suddenly 
letting one of the ends go ; also a bandage hung 
from the neck to support the arm or hand. 

Sloe. [AS.] A small bitter wild plum, the fruit 
of the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) ; also the 
tree itself. 

Sloop. [Du.] A one-masted ship with fore-and- 
aft sails. The typical sloop has a fixed bowsprit, 
top-mast, and standing rigging, but those of a 
cutter can be rapidly shifted. 

Slot=machine. An ingenious instrument so 
arranged that its machinery is set in motion by 
the weight of a cent, a half-dime or other small 
coin. Slot-machines in great variety have been 
made, some adapted to set in action a weighing 
apparatus, others to drop out small articles, 
when the coin is dropped in. Among the latest 
devices is one to give out railroad tickets in 
exchange for the proper coin, used on the German ( 
railroads. 

Sloth. [AS.] This is a curious creature without 
fore teeth and canines. It is a native of Central 
and South America. Its shape is very different 
from that of gnawing animals, for its front legs 

714 


are longer than those behind. Some sloths have 
three, others two, large strong curved claws to 
each foot. The two-toed sloths have two toes on 
the fore foot and three on each hind foot. These 
the sloth hooks round the branch of a tree, and 
hanging with its back downward moves with 
great speed among the thick forests. Its strong 
coarse hair is so like the color of the trees that it 
is not easily seen among the branches ; and there 
it has no enemies to fear except men and snakes. 
The natives of South America hunt it for its 
flesh, of which they are very fond. On the 
ground it moves with a slow, awkward shuffle, 
hooking its strong claws into the ground, and 
dragging itself along. When attacked it throws 
itself on its back, and tries to choke its enemy 
with its powerful arms. It lives on leaves and 
twigs, and completely strips one tree before it 
begins to strip another. 

Slug. A land-dwelling mollusc, without a shell, 
except a small internal one which protects the 
heart. The slugs are the pests of gardens and 
cultivated places, and give much trouble to gar¬ 
deners. 

Sluice. [OldFr., from exclusa, shut out.] Adoor 
or gate, sliding in a frame, for shutting off or 
regulating the flow of water; also a long box 
used in washing for gold. 

Smelt. [AS.] A small salmonoid fish which as¬ 
cends rivers to spawn, much esteemed for food. 
It has a peculiar odor .—Candle fish is a kiud of 
smelt found on the North Pacific coast, and is so 
oily that it may be used as a candle by drawing a 
wick through it. 

Snail. [AS.] A soft slimy land mollusc, usually 
protected by a spiral shell. Besides long ten¬ 
tacles tipped with black eye-specks, snails have a 
shorter pair, which are organs of smell. There 
are over 2,000 species of snails, and they are 
found in all parts of the world except the Arctic 
regions. Some are even smaller than a pin-head; 



SECTION OF THE SKIN MAGNIFIED 


while others, in France and Italy, cultivated for 
food, are fairly large. The Great Vine Snail was 
considered a table luxury by the ancient Romans. 
Snails are vegetarians, and have jaws and tongues 
of saw-like edge, with thousands of rasping points 
on each. On the approach of cold weather the 



























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


139 


snail throws a film over the mouth of its shell, 
which tightens like a drum-head. Snails have 
astonishing vitality. They regain activity after 
having been frozen in solid blocks of ice, and 
endure a degree of heat for weeks which daily 
crisps vegetation. In very dry weather they 
close up the shell as in cold weather, to retain 
the bodily moisture. 

Snake. [AS. snaca, creeper.] A creeping reptile, 
whose gliding motion is due to having the ver¬ 
tebrae jointed with ball-and-socket joints. O11 
each vertebra is a pair of ribs which are used as 
legs, working the snake backwards and forwards ; 
and its scales are used as feet, catching the 
ground and pulling or pushing the whole body. 
Its jaws are joined by an elastic gristle, so that 
they can be spread wide ; and its tongue darts far 
out beyond its lips, touching or feeling. Its 
teeth are not used for chewing but for holding 
and swallowing its prey. There are the black 
snake, blind snake, garter snake, green snake, 
ring snake, rock snake, milk snake, water snake, 
and dwarf snake, and various venomous snakes, 
such as the rattlesnake and the copperhead. The 
python is sometimes 30 feet long, and the female 
incubates her eggs. (See Boa, Cobra, Rattle¬ 
snake, Serpent.) — Snake-bird or darter is a kind 
ofgannet with a snake-like neck. 

Snap / ping=tur / tle. The common name of a family 
of reptiles, comprising turtles with the body high 
in front, low behind, large head, long neck, 
powerful jaws, tail long and strong. If assailed 
they raise themselves on their legs and tail, 
throw the body forcibly forward, and snap the 
jaws with great power upon their foe. They are 
a match for any enemy likely to attack them ex¬ 
cept man. They are frequently found upon the 
land near the water, devouring small animals. 
There are three species, two of which are Ameri¬ 
can. They are hunted for their flesh, which 
makes a rich and palatable soup. 

Snipe. The common name of a large family of 
birds, found in many parts of the world. The 
common snipes of Europe and America are much 
alike in size and plumage, being about 17 inches 
in total length, of which the bill is nearly 3 
inches. They fly very swiftly and in a zigzag 
manner, and are difficult to shoot, though much 
hunted as a delicious game bird. 

Snow. [AS.] Frozen moisture falling in soft 
white flakes. It is not produced, like hail, by 
the freezing of rain-drops, but formed by the 
direct passage of the vapor into the solid state. 
It falls to the earth in flakes, each flake consist¬ 
ing of a regularly shaped crystal, or, as more 
commonly happens, of several crystals grouped 
together. The most common form is that of six- 
pointed stars variously modified. Each star has 
a solid nucleus, from which six little rods of ice 
proceed at regular angles, and from the sides of 
these rods secondary rays may be given off, pro¬ 
ducing a countless variety of very beautiful 
figures. The snow-flakes are largest when the 
temperature is near the freezing-point, the snow 
being then soft and easily gathering into masses. 
The texture of snow being very loose, it is a bad 


conductor of heat; and being also a bad radiator 
on account of its white color, it forms an admir¬ 
able covering for plants, shielding them from 
the effects of severe frosts. 

Snow=bunting. An American bird, common in 
summer in the Arctic regions and in winter in 
the United States. It resembles the lark in 
its habits, and is generally very fat and much 
esteemed for the table. 

Snow=drop. A small bulbous plant, with white 

dropping or 
hanging flow¬ 
ers, often ap¬ 
pearing while 
the snow is on 
the ground. 

Snowline. 
The line on a 
mountain above 
which snow 
never melts. 
The lowest lim¬ 
it of perpetual 
snow in the Alps 
is at 9,000 feet 
above sea-level, 
and in the 
Andes, at the equator, 16,000 feet. 

Snow=shoe. A flat shoe worn to keep the foot 
from sinking in the snow. The frame of wood 
is three or four feet long and about a foot wide, 
with thongs or cords stretched across it, and 
having a support and holder for the foot. 

Snyff. [Du.] Tobacco or stalks of tobacco finely 
powdered taken into the nose. It is scented 
with essential oils or otherwise. It was formerly 
much used, but is now very little. 

Soap. [AS., akin to E- sapoC\ A mixture of oil 
or fat with soda or potash for washing. Since 
the cheapening of caustic soda by the Le Blanc 
process, soda is chiefly used instead of potash as 
the alkali of soap. Common soap is a compound 
of fat or oils ( q.v .) and caustic soda. Many kinds 
of soap are made, but they all consist of some 
fatty substance (as tallow) boiled with an alkali— 
either caustic soda or caustic potash. Yellow 
soap is made from tallow and caustic soda colored 
by rosin ; mottled soap, from dripping, etc., 
boiled with caustic soda ; Castile soap, from olive 
oil and caustic soda ; brown Windsor , from equal 
parts of tallow and olive oil boiled with caustic 
soda ; white or curd soap, from tallow and caustic 
soda. Transparent soap , is made by dissolving 
curd soap in spirits of wine. Marine soap, is 
made from cocoa-nut oil and caustic soda; it will 
dissolve in salt water (which common soap will 
not do), and is therefore much used on board 
ships. Soft soap is made by boiling caustic 
potash with some fish-oil.— Soapstone, or talc, is 
a silicate of magnesia used to make stoves, 
hearths, crayons, etc. 

So / da. [Ital.] A substance formerly got from 
sea-weeds, and in 1791 it was produced from com¬ 
mon salt by Ee Blanc. In this process salt is 
transformed into sodium sulphate by adding 
sulphuric acid ; then by mixing with chalk and 

715 



SNOW CRYSTALS. 







140 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


coal it is made into sodium carbonate. Soda can 
be produced by electricity from brine. It is the 
most important of all chemical products used in 
the industries. Caustic soda , or sodium hydrox¬ 
ide, is used in making soap, wood pulp for paper, 
etc.; cooking or washing soda is sodium bicar¬ 
bonate. 

So / da=water. Water mixed with a little soda and 
carbonic acid ; a beverage consisting of water 
highly charged with carbonic acid, to which fruit 
syrups are usually added. 

So'diuin. A common metallic element of the 
alkali group, always found combined, as in 
common salt. When isolated it is a soft, waxy 
white metal, so readily oxidized that it combines 
with water and must be preserved under petro¬ 
leum. As a means of obtaining magnesium and 
aluminium, sodium is an important article of 
commerce. Its compounds are widely diffused 
in nature, and can be detected by the peculiar 
yellow color which they impart to a flame, or by 
the yellow line in the spectrum. 

Soil. [Fr., from E. solum , ground.] Earth in 
which plants grow. Soil consists of a mixture of 
earthy materials resulting from the disintegration 
of the rocks by natural agencies, and a deposit of 
organic matter arising from the growth and decay 
of vegetation on the earth’s surface. The influ¬ 
ence of earth-worms, ants, and other small crea¬ 
tures on the condition of the soil has lately been 
shown to be considerable. 

So / lan Goose. [Scand., Sula.] The gannet (q.v.). 

So / lar Spec / trum. [E.] The spectrum of solar 
light, characterized by numerous dark lines, 
called Fraunhofer lines , from being observed by 
a German physicist of that name. [See Spec¬ 
trum.] 

So'lar Sys'tem. [E-] The sun, with the bodies 
revolving round it, and receiving from it their 
light and heat, and held by its attraction. It 
includes eight planets with twenty-two satellites, 
of which the Earth has one, Mars two, Jupiter 
five, Saturn nine, Uranus four, and Neptune one. 
There are more than four hundred asteroids, or 
very small planetary bodies, known between 
Mars and Jupiter. The meteoroids furnish the 
zodiacal light and the rings of Saturn. The year 
of Mercury is nearly 88 days; of Venus, nearly 
225 days ; of the Earth, over 365 days ; of Mars, 
nearly 687 days ; of Jupiter, nearly 4,333 days ; of 
Saturn, over 10,759 days ; of Uranus, nearly 
30,687 days; of Neptune, over 60,181 days. The 
four outer planets are very much larger than the 
interior ones. There are many comets included 
within the solar system. 

SoFder. [Fr., from U- solidus.'] Melted metal 
used for fastening pieces of metal together. 
Hard solder , for fusing at red heat, is composed 
of zinc and copper or silver and copper. Soft 
solder , for low temperature, in use among 
plumbers, consists of two parts lead and one 
part tin. 

Sole. [L-] A kind of flat-fish of the genus Solea. 
The common sole of Europe is much used for 
food. Lemon or French sole is another species. 
The megrim is the British smooth sole or scald fish. 

716 


SoFstice. [Fr., from E. solslitium .] The point 
in the ecliptic at which the sun is farthest from 
the equator, either north or south, and at which 
it seems to stand still. The 21st of June is the 
summer, and 21st of December the winter sol¬ 
stice ; for .some days before and after these dates 
the length of day is very similar. Both points 
are 23 0 28' from the equator. 

Soot. [AS.] The loose black particles from 
smoke in chimneys disengaged from the fuel in 
process of combustion, consisting chiefly of car¬ 
bon, and the result of imperfect combustion. 

Sor'rel. [Fr.] A plant like the dock, whose 
leaves have a sour taste. Mountain sorrel has 
rounded kidney-formed leaves. Red sorrel is 
found in the West Indies, and the calyxes and 
capsules are used for making tarts and acid drinks. 
Salt of sorrel is binoxalate of potash, and is ob¬ 
tained from common sorrel or Rumex acetosa. 

Sound. [Fr., from E. sonare.] That which can 
be heard. In physics, it is applied to the exter¬ 
nal cause which produces the sensation. In this 
sense the word sound stands either for the vibra¬ 
tions of the sound¬ 
ing body or for the 
impulses it has 
communicated to 
the air, and which 
immediately affect 
the ear. It can be 
shown by experi¬ 
ment that sound 
is the result of a 
vibratory in o v e- 
ment which when 
sufficiently rapid 
produces a sound. 
A bell, a glass plate, 
a tuningfork, a 
pian'o string, if put 
into a state of vibra¬ 
tion, wall produce a sound if the vibrations take 
place in a suitable medium. It has been found 
that sound is not transmitted in a vacuum. A 
bell struck in the exhausted receiver of an air- 
pump is nearly inaudible. I11 water, sound travels 
nearly four times as fast as in air, in which its 
speed is about 1,093 feet P cr second. In solids 
the velocity varies widely. In inelastic sub¬ 
stanceslike lead or wax it is small, while in those 
like wood and steel it is large. Musical sounds 
differ from one another in respect to intensity , 
pitch , and character or timbre. The intensity 
depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations. 
Pitch is the quality wdiich distinguishes an acute 
sound from a grave one. It depends upon the 
frequency of vibration. As with other forms of 
w r ave motion, sound may be reflected and re¬ 
fracted ; and if not in accord with each other 
their interference gives rise to beats. 

Soup, [Fr.] Water with meat or vegetables 
boiled in it and used for food. Soup maigre is 
made chiefly from vegetables or fish, with a little 
butter and a few condiments. 

Sovereign. [Fr.,fromE . supremus.] A British 
gold coin worth twenty shillings. 



SPINNERET OF SPIDER. 
















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


141' 


Spade. [AS.] An instrument for digging, having 
a broad oblong and nearly rectangular flat blade, 

_ usually of iron, with a wooden handle. 

Span iels or Spanish Dogs. Handsome animals 
with long silky hair, drooping ears, bushy tails, 
and feet partly webbed Water spaniels are good 
swimmers, and field spaniels can fetch game. 
Blenheim and King Charles spaniels are lap-dogs. 

Spank/er. [AS.] A fore-and-aft sail on the 

^ mizzen-mast attached to a boom and gaff. 

Spar'row. [AS.] The Sparrow family is a nu¬ 
merous one of perching birds. They help the 
farmer by keeping down caterpillars, grubs, and 
insects, which would otherwise overrun the 
fruits and crops ; but they are very combative 
and drive other birds away. The white-throated 
American sparrow has a black crown, yellow 
spots over the eyes, orange edges on the wings, 
and a white throat. It is called the peabody bird 
from the sound of its note. The English sparrow, 
introduced into the United States to destroy the 
caterpillars of the tussock moth, which are in¬ 
jurious to shade trees, has greatly multiplied and 
is the common bird of cities and towns. The 
hedge sparrow is the size of the robin, and 
belongs to a different family. Its beak is black 
and rather long and slender. The solitary spar¬ 
row is a species of thrush, and is a native of 
Southern Europe. It resembles the blackbird, 
and has bluish feathers. The Sparrow family 
includes finches, swallows, thrushes, and larks. 
(See Beak.) 

Spar / row=hawk. A small hawk which preys on 
sparrows and other small birds. It is the most 
pernicious of hawks, feeding on pigeons, par¬ 
tridges and young fowls. It is bluish gray in 
color, with a cream-colored breast. It builds in 
hollow trees or in ruins. It is found in large 
numbers all over the world. It lays four or five 
eggs of a white color, spotted with red. 

Spear. [AS.] A long shaft of wood, with a sharp 
iron point, used in fighting, hunting, or in 
catching fish. 

Spear=fish. A large, powerful fish found in the 
Mediterranean, related to and somewhat like the 
sword-fish. It has scales and ventral fins. 

Specific Heat. The quantity of heat required to 
raise the temperature of a pound of a substance 
one degree, taking as a unit of measure the 
freezing point quantity required to raise one 
pound of water at one degree. The specific heat 
of mercury is 0.033, that °f water being 1. 

Spectacles. [U-] Two glasses set in a light 
frame to help weak sight. They were invented 
by an Italian in the thirteenth century. For 
short-sighted eyes,spectacles with concave lenses 
are used, which form an image of the object 
nearer to the eye than the object itself. For 
long-sighted eyes, spectacles with convex lenses 
are used, which form the image at a greater dis¬ 
tance from the eye than the object. 

Spectroscope. [U. spectrum ; and Gk. skopeo, 
I see.] A11 instrument consisting of a telescope 
with a prism for separating the rays of light 
proceeding from the sun and stars or from burn¬ 
ing substances, so that, by the relations of the 



lines to one another, the composition of the sub¬ 
stances burned may be ascertained. 

Spectrum. A ray of light separated by a prism 
or otherwise into the colors of which it is com¬ 
posed. There arc seven different bands of color 
—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet. The spectrum of solar light or that of the 
light given off by burning bodies, is found to be 

crossed by very 
many dark lines 
or spaces where 
thelightisinter- 
rupted. These 
are known from 
their discover¬ 
er, as the Fraun¬ 
hofer lines. If 
the substance 
burned is a gas, 
its lines are 
bright instead 
dark, and the 
rest of the spectrum 
is dark. Each sub¬ 
stance makes a dif- 
erent set of lines, 
and spectrum an¬ 
alysis is a method 
of examining the 
lines in any ray ©flight and determining by them 
what substance yields the ray. By this means it 
has been found that many earthly substances exist 
in the sun, such as hydrogen, iron, sodium, etc. 
Similar substances have been found in very dis¬ 
tant stars. Many of the nebulae give a spectrum 
of bright lines, from which we conclude, that 
they are composed of luminous gaseous matter. 

Speculum. [L,.] A piece of polished metal 
which acts like a mirror, as in a reflecting tele¬ 
scope. Silvered glass mirrors being lighter and 
more easily made, have taken the place of 
metallic mirrors. 

Spermace'ti. [U. sperma , seed; and cetus , a 
whale.] A kind of fat from the head of the 
sperm whale used in making candles, ointments, 
and cosmetics. It is a semi-fluid substance which, 
on being taken from the animal, hardens as it 
cools. The large head is partly occupied by a 
cavity containing spermaceti, and other cavities 
throughout the body are also filled with it. It 
consists of salts of palmitic acid and ethal and 
hydrocarbon bases. 

Sperm Oil. Oil got from the sperm whale. It is a 
thin and valuable oil, and, like spermaceti, is 
used in ointments and medicine. It is slightly 
pressed from the other matters with which it is 
mixed, and one animal has been known to 
yield 6,000 gallons of this oil. 

Sperm Whale. A kind of whale called also cacha¬ 
lot, from which sperm oil and spermaceti are 
obtained. Sperm whales frequent tropical seas 
and live in groups or shoals. They have large, 
square heads, with a single blow-hole near the 
extremity of the snout. They have no whale¬ 
bone plates in the mouth, but the lower jaw is 
furnished with large, conical, curved teeth, and 

717 














142 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


when the mouth is closed the teeth fit into 
cavities in the upper jaw. They sometimes grow 
to the length of 80 feet. 

Sphere. [Fr., from Gk. sphaira , a ball.] A round 
body ; also the apparent surface of the heavens, 
which is assumed to be spherical and everywhere 
equally distant, in which the heavenly bodies 
appear to have their places. 

Sphinx. A fabulous monster of classic lore, with 
the head and bust of a woman, the body of a 
dog, wings of a bird, and tail of a serpent. 
The Egyptian sphinx was a winged lion with a 
human head and bust. This creature was carved 
in stone, and set up in rows as approaches to the 
great temples. The Great Sphinx, near the 
Pyramids of Egypt, is 62 feet high. 

Spice. [Fr., from E. species. ] A vegetable pro¬ 
duction, with a strong, sweet smell and sharp 
taste, used as a seasoning by mixing with food. 
The chief spices are ginger, cinnamon, nutmegs, 
cloves, allspice, and pepper ( q.v .). Allspice or 
pinento is a native of Jamaica, and is an ever¬ 
green tree. The berries are dried and much 
used for flavoring, as they contain the flavor of 
other spices. 

Spic / ules. Needle-shaped objects in sponges, 
which retain the shape of the sponge when the 
flesh is removed. Flints (q.v.) are filled with 
fossil spicules. 

SpFder. [AS., from spin .] An animal allied to 
the insects, which spins a web in order to catch 
flies for food. There are two divisions in the 
spider’s body. The upper, or head part has a 
horny covering, and is united to the abdomen 
by a short stalk. Spiders have four pairs of legs, 
ending in hooks. Near the mouth are hooked 
teeth which have slits at the ends from which a 
poisonous fluid is ejected. There are eight eyes 
on the back of the head. Some spiders spin no 
web, but jump upon their prey; others, as the 
tarantula, run it down ; but most snare their 
pre} r by traps in the form of exquisite webs. 
The webs of the house spider and cellar spider 
are woven in many shapes, but the garden 
spider weaves a geometrical web. At the end of 
the abdomen of the spider are from four to six 
spinnerets covered with tiny points, from each 
of which flows a gummy fluid which hardens 
into silk when it reaches the air. A web is fast¬ 
ened to an object by simply touching the spin¬ 
neret with the object. Having arranged the 
long rays or spokes, a spiral thread is run round 
and round. Then a silken den to hide in is built 
near by, with one long thread by which she can 
feel if a fly strikes the net. Nearly all spiders 
enclose their eggs in a cocoon, which sometimes 
the mother carries on her back. Gossamer spiders 
send out long floating lines which carry them 
through the air. The water spider makes a bell¬ 
shaped cell under the water, and takes down a 
little bubble of air into the bell to supply it with 
air. The trap-dc >r spider lives in warm countries, 
and has a nest in the ground lined with silk and 
covered with a lid made by layers of earth and 
alternate webs fixed to the nest to make a hinge. 
From the gossamer web of the garden spider are 

718 


taken the fine threads which are stretched across 
the lens in the astronomical telescope for accur¬ 
ate sighting. 

Spike. [E- spied, an ear of corn.] A piece of 
pointed iron or an ear of corn .—Oil of spike is a 
colorless or yellowish aromatic oil from broad¬ 
leaved lavender, used as varnish and as medicine. 

SpirCach. [Ital. from E. spina, a thorn, or His- 
pania.] A vegetable used for food, some vari¬ 
eties having thorny or prickly leaves, belonging 
to the Goosefoot family, grown in almost every 
country. It is (also) called Spinage. 

SpFnal Cord. A long, round mass of nervous 
matter situated in the cavity of the spinal column. 
The brain is a soft mass of gray and white nerve- 
matter, about three pounds in weight, which fills 
the interior of the skull. From it a cord of 
nerve substance, about as thick as the little 



finger, and some eighteen inches in length, 
passes downwards from the brain along the centre 
of the backbone. This is called the spinal cord. 
Eong but very fine nerves extend from the brain 
and the spinal cord to all parts of the body. 

Spinning. [AS.] Drawing out and twisting fibres 
into threads. Eong threads are spun by mule 
spinning-machines, which carry hundreds of 
spindles. The spindles are set and run swiftly 
in one long straight row on a wheeled frame, 
which backs off and returns with them all at 
once. Ring-spinning or warp-spinning is twist¬ 
ing the thread used for warp. As it is spun, it is 
wound on small bobbins and rewound on larger 
bobbins or spools, and then wound on large 
rollers the same width as the cloth to be made. 
It is then starched and dried before weaving into 
cloth. 

Spitz Dog. A breed having erect ears and long 
silky hair, and called also Pomeranian. 

Sponge. [Fr., from the Gk.] The animal occupy¬ 
ing the lowest rank among the many celled 
animals, and next above the Protozoa, or single- 
celled animals. It consists of a network of horny 
or fibrous substance, or of lime or silica. This is 
covered and filled with a slimy flesh, through 
which run numbers of tubular passages. The 
sponge remains in the place to which it is 
attached under water, drawing in water and 
letting it out again, and feeding on the particles 
in the water. Coarse sponges are fished up with 
harpoons. Men dive for the fine sponges, and 
cut them off with knives, and the skeletons 
washed of their slimy flesh and dried are the 
sponges of commerce. The large bath-sponges 
come from the Mediterranean and the Bahamas. 
The zimocca comes from the Mediterranean. The 
yellow hard-head sponge is found in American 
waters on the Florida coast. It is dense, thick, 



















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


143 


and hard. The finest, softest, and most delicate 
sponge is the Turkish toilet sponge, from the 
Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Grecian 
Archipelago. Sponges are of all shapes and 
colors—like a vase, trumpet, globe, or branch of 
a tree. Neptune’s cup is a curiouslj^-shaped 
Sponge. Venus’s flower-basket is made of glassy 
threads. Sponges are useful for the bath, arc 
made into a kind of cloth as a foundation of car¬ 
pets and rugs, and are sometimes used to stuff 
cushions. 

Spoon'bill. A long-legged wading bird akin to 
the heron, having a bill like a spoon. Its bill is 
wide and flattened at the tip, and it scoops up its 
prey. Like the heron it fishes, and like the duck 
it searches for worms in the mud. Its color in 
the first year is a dark chestnut, the second year 
it changes to red, and the third year to bright 
scarlet. The royal spoonbill of Australia is white, 
and the male has a crest. 

Sprat. [Du.] A small fish somewhat like young 
herring or the pilchard. The sprat is marked by 
a deeply-serrated abdomen, while the young her¬ 
ring is without this. Sometimes called a garvie. 
(See Whitebait.) 

Spring. [AS.] An outflow of water from the 
ground. The water of springs consists of rain¬ 
water which has soaked into the ground and 
percolated through the rocks, sometimes for a 
distance of several miles. Water easily passes 
through porous rocks, such as sandstone, but it 
cannot pass through clay. It then travels along 
the junction of two strata for a greater or less 
distance until it finds its way to an outlet and 



INTERMITTENT SPRING 


reappears at the surface as a spring. Springs of 
this simple character are very common, and are 
known as siirface springs. An Intermittent 
Spring is one that flows and stops alternately 
being connected with a reservoir ( b ) by a sutured 
siphon (a). Mineral springs have mineral in¬ 
gredients, which they hold in solution. 

Springbok. [Du.] A South African gazelle, 
noted for its swiftness, springing action, and 


K 



SQIRREL. 


graceful form. It has a white stripe on the back 
and tail. 

Spring=tide. The highest tide at or soon after 
new and full moon. It rises higher than the 
average tide. (See Tides.) 

Spruce fir. [From Prussia .] A kind of fir, but 
unlike firs in having pendent cones with per¬ 
sistent scales and leaves arranged round the 

shoots. The 
sprouts are 
used to 
flavor 
spruce beer 
and the 
fp' wood is 
'used for 
fences, boat 
building, 
cooperage, 
etc. There 
are many 
varieties in 
Norway 
and the 
north-west 
of America. 
Frequently 
seen in 
parks. 

Square. [Fr., from Ital.] Having four equal sides 
and four right angles. In carpentry , the square 
has at least one right angle and two or more 
straight edges. It includes a carpenter’s square, 
L, a T square, and a try square a . 

Squash. The fruit of a species of the gourd plant, 
to which the pumpkin and melon also belong. 
It was grown in America by the Indians before 
the whites came ; also in Europe in early times. 
It is smaller than the pumpkin, the chief kinds 
being the round flat ones with scalloped edges 
and the long crook necks. An English variety is 
the vegetable marrow or egg-squash. It is much 
used in New England in pies, and is a common 
table vegetable throughout the United States. 

Squid. Any one of numerous species of cephalo- 
pods with ten arms, a long, tapering body, and a 
caudal fin on each side. The squid is abundant 
in the North Atlantic, and is used as bait in cod¬ 
fishing. It is also known as calamary, and has a 
sac of ink-like fluid, which it discharges from a 
siphon tube to hide it from its foes. (S 0.0Sepia.) 

Squirrel. [Low L-, from Gk.] A beautiful little 
gnawing animal, of different colors and sizes, 
found in all parts of the world except Australia. 
The tail is not only the squirrel’s greatest orna 
ment, but is of the utmost use to it in leaping. 
The hairs stretch out on both sides like a fan, 
and serve to guide the animal. The flying- 
squirrel is so called from its having a skin, as 
thin as paper, but covered with fur, stretching 
between the front and hind legs, which makes a 
kind of wing, with wliich it can jump from tree 
to tree. It is found in Java, India, America, and 
Siberia. The common red squirrel lives among 
trees, building a round nest at the top of a very 
high tree. It eats nuts, acorns, and corn, and 

7 T 9 













144 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


lays up a store of food for use in winter and 
spring. Its hind legs are longer than its front 
ones, between which it holds its food. The chip¬ 
munk or ground squirrel is so called because, 
though it can climb trees very well, it docs not 
live in them, but makes its nest in burrows deep 
under the ground. It has large cheek-pouches, 
in which it carries its food to its underground 
store-houses. It is a beautiful striped animal, 
and is common in North America, where it is also 
called the chipping squirrel. 

Stag. [Scand.] The male of the red deer of 
Europe. Its horns are long and branching, and 
when of full growth will often weigh twenty-four 
pounds. When the horns carry twelve points or 
tines the stag is a royal one. There are antlers 
in existence with many more points than this, 
one in Saxony having 66 points. 

Stalactite. [Gk., to drop.] A stalk of lime 
hanging from a limestone cave. It is due to 
water carrying lime which makes its way through 
the cave roof, and evaporates, leaving the lime 
hanging like an i.-icle. Stalagmite is the stalk 
of lime on the floor of the cave which has 
dropped in water from the roof. 

Sta'men. [L-, a thread.] One of the thread-like 
pollen-bearing stalks in the centre of a flower. 

Star. [AS.] One of the bright bodies seen in the 
sky at night, whose distance is so great that as 
seen from the earth they appear only as points of 
light. By astronomers the stars are looked upon 
as the suns of remote systems. Tike our sun, 
they emit light; and when the spectroscope is 
applied to the light which they give out, it is 
found that the materials of which the stars are 
composed agree with those known to be present 
in the sun and in our earth. The distance of the 
stars is so great that when viewed from the earth 
they are always seen in the same direction ; 
hence, as they maintain an invariable position 
relative to each other, they have been named 
fixed stars. This term is used in a comparative 
and not an absolute sense, as it is known that 
many of them are in a state of motion, although 
it can be perceived only by delicate observations. 
They are divided into classes, according to their 
apparent brightness. These are termed magni¬ 
tudes. The brightest stars are said to be of the 
first magnitude, those that fall short of this of the 
second, and so on. Down to the sixth or seventh 
magnitude the stars are visible to the naked eye, 
and from the eighth to the sixteenth by powerful 
telescopes. The three or four brightest classes 
are distributed with tolerable uniformity over the 
celestial sphere ; but of the total amount visible 
to the naked eye and by means of the telescope, 
by far the larger number are in or near the Milky 
Way. In certain parts of the heavens the stars 
are collected into groups in a more condensed 
manner than in neighboring parts. Such groups 
are called clusters. One well-known group is 
called the Pleiades, in which six or seven stars 
may be noticed by the naked eye, but which 
photography has shown to consist of 2,326. Many 
nebulae that were formerly thought to be masses 
of glowing gas have been recently found to be 

720 


clusters of stars so remote that their individual 
members are imperceptible except with instru¬ 
ments of great power. Photography has revealed 
stars so far distant that a message sent 1,900 
years ago would only have just reached them, 
and would be still on the way to others, going 
with the speed of light, or 1S6,000 miles a second. 

Starch. [AS.] One of the main constituents of 
plants. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, and 
hydrogen, the last two in the proportions re¬ 
quired to form water. It is near to sugar in 
chemical composition and is converted into it in 
the life history of the plant. Wood fibre belongs 



POTATO STARCH CORPUSCLES: 


to the same class of compounds. These make 
up the great bulk of the plant, the remain¬ 
der being its oily matter and its nitrogenous 
substance, which forms the protoplasm of its 
cells. Starch for commercial use is chiefly 
obtained from wheat, maize, rice, and potatoes; 
and in France from horse chestnuts. Starch iu 
maize is from 60 to 80 per cent.; wheat, 60 ; rye, 
60; oats, 46; barley, 57; rice, 61; potatoes, 61. 
Starch is found in the form of little grains con¬ 
tained in the cells of plants. It is insoluble in 
cold water ; but in hot water the grains sw T ell up 
until they burst and form a jelly-like mass. Corn 
starch is made in the United States by soaking 
Indian corn in water containing caustic soda and 
hydrochloric acid to dissolve the gluten, grind¬ 
ing, washing on sieves, and finishing by various 
processes. Rice starch is largely made" in Eng¬ 
land, France, and Belgium. Starch is useful for 
stiffening cloths, sizing paper, making paste, 
dextrine, glucose, detecting iodine, and as an 
article of food. (See Rice , Sago.) 

Star=fish. A star-shaped sea animal which creeps 
over rocks andsand, feeding on mussels andshell- 
fish.‘ The five rays are made of limestone plates, 
joined by a tough membrane. Under each ray 








encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


145 


is a groove with hundreds of tiny transparent 
tubes moving separately. The tubes act as feet 
and carry the animal forward. When the star¬ 
fish feeds, it not only bends its rays into a cup 
shape to hold its prey, but numerous tiny suckers 
spring up to help. Star-fishes have a liver and 
intestines, and these organs extend into the five 
rays. They have nerves which end in a red eye- 
speck at the end of each ray. They do great 
damage to oyster beds, as they eat the oysters, 
which they force to open their shells. They are 
dredged from the beds and used as manure. 

Starring. [AS.] A small greenish-black British 
song-bird, which can be taught to whistle tunes 
and sometimes to speak a few words. It builds 
in church steeples, in ruins, or on rocks. The 
food of the starling consists of insects, cater¬ 
pillars, worms, and snails ; but it also feeds on 
grain, fruits, and seeds. In severe winters it 
frequents the sea-shore, but in summer it is found 
in the farmers’ garden, where it makes harsh cries 
and chattering sounds before retiring to rest. In 
America, bobolinks, cow birds, meadow-larks, 
orioles, and red-winged blackbirds are all star¬ 
lings. The bobolink is black and white. The 
oriole is called a hanging bird because of its pe¬ 
culiar nest, which is like a pouch or pocket. 

Steam. [AS.] Water in the gaseous state. The 
clouds of vapor w T hich are seen to issue from a 
kettle of boiling water are also popularly called 
“ steam ; ” but these white clouds consist chiefly 
of condensed steam, and do not possess the pro¬ 
perties which belong to steam considered as a 
gas. Dry steam is as much invisible as atmos¬ 
pheric air. Owing to the great pressure which 
it exerts, to the large amount of heat which it 
can carry, and to the ease with which it can be 
condensed, steam has been found better fitted 
than any other gas for use in engines employed 
for the production of mechanical work. 

Steam-engine. An engine worked by steam. The 
chief parts are the piston,cylinder, and valve gear. 
The piston works in a cylinder, to which steam 
is admitted by the action of the valve gear, caus¬ 
ing the piston to move backward and forward 
and communicate motiou to the machinery. The 
atmospheric engine constructed by Newcomen 
near the beginning of the eighteenth century 
was the first in which a beam was made to 
oscillate by the elastic force of steam. It was 
used for pumping water out of mines. The con¬ 
densation of the steam in the space below the 
piston produced a vacuum, and the piston was 
forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere. 
One of Watt’s first improvements was the intro¬ 
duction of a separate chamber for the condensa¬ 
tion of the steam. Another improvement intro¬ 
duced by Watt was double action. By this 
arrangement the steam was introduced alternately 
above and below the piston. This consisted in 
cutting off the steam from the boiler before the 
piston had reached the top of the cylinder. It 
need scarcely be said that many later improve¬ 
ments have been introduced in the steam-engine, 
greatly increasing its powers. 

46 


Steam =turbine. A new form of steam motor, in 
which the steam is thrown against the valves of 
a turbine-wheel, which it causes to turn with 
great rapidity. These machines develop great 
power in small space. They have been placed in 
torpedo boats, driving them through the water 
at the unequaled speed of over 35 knots an hour. 

Ste'arin. [Gk. stear , tallow.] A constituent of 
animal fats, as beef and mutton suet; and some 
vegetable fats as of cocoa. It is remarkable fol¬ 
ks solidity, and raises the melting-point of fat. 
It is prepared by mixing ether with suet, and is 
used in making soap. 

Steel. [AS.] A hard metal made by heating iron 
with charcoal. Steel is the form of iron in which 
the amount of carbon is intermediate between 
that contained in cast iron and in wrought iron. In 
steel, the carbon is either chemically united with 
the metal or dissolved in it. It may contain 
silicon and manganese in small quantities, but 
sulphur or phosphorus is regarded as an impurity. 
It is malleable and ductile, fusible, and capable 
of acquiring, by being tempered, great hardness, 
which renders it suitable for cutlery and the 
different varieties of cutting tools. Steel was at 
one time always prepared from wrought iron 
by heating the bars for some time in contact with 
charcoal. This method of preparation is known 
as cementation. The process of manufacturing 
steel known as the Bessemer or pneumatic pro¬ 
cess is of very great industrial importance. It 
consists in blowing air through molten pig iron 
in a vessel called the converter. The carbon and 
the silicon which the pig iron contains are thus 
oxidized, and the iron is brought to the condition 
of wrought iron. After the iron is completely 
deprived of carbon, a certain quantity of pure 
cast iron is added in order to supply the carbon 
necessary to convert it into steel. The metal is 
then cast into ingots. This kind of steel is used 
for railway axles and rails, for boiler plates, and 
for ships. Targe buildings, as churches, colleges, 
and schools, are now made with frame-work of 
steel. The walls are double, and the air between 
acts as a non-conductor of heat. 

Sterkcil. A thin plate of metal or other material 
with letters or a pattern cut through it. It is laid 
flat on a surface, a brush dipped in paint or ink 
rubbed over it, and the letters or pattern thus 
transferred. Stencils are much used by mer¬ 
chants to mark boxes or barrels. 

Steppe. The vast, low plains of Europe and Asia, 
extending from Holland to Russia and thence 
through Siberia and Mongolia. The name is 
specially applied to the broad and largely arid 
pasture lands north and east of the Caspian, and 
the Siberian lowlands. 

Stereoscope. [Gk.] An optical instrument of 
magnifying-glasses, with a slide for two slightly 
different pictures of the same thing, which when 
looked through throws both pictures into one, 
and gives the figures the appearance of solidity. 

Stereotype. [Gk.] A metal plate, being an 
exact copy in a solid form of a page of type. 
Stereotyping by plaster of Paris was discovered 
by Gcd in the eighteenth century. Electrotypes 

72 r 





146 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


have now taken the place of stereotypes in book- 
work. In newspaper offices, where speed is 
important, the paper process of stereotyping is 
still much used. In this process the type is 
placed under a press, and a matrix is made of damp 
paper by forcing the type into the paper. After 
the paper is dry type-metal is poured over it, and 
the metal plates are trimmed and planed. 

Stethoscope. [Gk.] A medical tube used for 
listening to the beating of the heart or the sound 
of the lungs in breathing. 

Stickleback. [AS.] A very small fish with two 
or more prickles on its back. It builds a nest 
somewhat like that of a bird. The male gathers 
weeds and erects a barrel-shaped house. He 
secretes in his body a sticky slime, which as soon 
as it touches water grows firm and hard, and with 
this he cements the nest. There is a hole right 
through the nest, so that the water flows over the 
eggs. In times of danger the father opens his 
mouth, and the whole swarm of young fishes 
rush in for protection. Sticklebacks inhabit 
both salt and brackish water. 

Sting. [AS.] The sharp point with which bees, 
wasps, etc., defend themselves. The sting of a 
female bee is a dart with barbs at the end of the 
abdomen connected with a poison gland ; and the 
sting is sometimes used in different bees for bor¬ 
ing, cutting, and sawing holes in which to place 
the eggs. Male bees have no stings, and are 
harmless. When the bee leaves the sting in the 
wound it dies. The wasp saves her sting after 
inflicting a wound. The sting-ray has one or 
more large sharp barbed dorsal spines on its 
whip-like tail. The stings of nettles are hairs 
with a poisonous secretion. 

Stone. [AS.] A piece of rock, or the hard centre 
of fleshy fruits. Building stones are natural or 
artificial. Natural stones are chiefly granite, 
marble, limestones, sandstones, and also slates. 
The hard stones are generally got by blasting, 
others by channeling and wedging, while the 
more fragile are sawn out in the quarries. Targe 
masses of stone are called rock , smaller pieces 
stone , and finer pieces gravel , or still finer grains 
of sand. Precious stones include diamonds ( q.v .), 
emeralds and beryls, sapphires (q. v.), and rubies 
(i q . v.), amethysts, serpentine, malachite (q.v.), 
turquoise, jasper, jade, and chalcedony. 

Stone=age. The era of primitive man, when his 
only tools and weapons were made of stone. In 
the old stone-age rudely chipped stone imple¬ 
ments were used ; in the new stone-age the im¬ 
plements were smoothed and polished. Great 
numbers of these stone utensils have been found, 
in all parts of the earth. The stone-age was fol¬ 
lowed by the bronze-age, and that by the iron- 
age. 

Stone 7 ware. A coarse stuff used by potters, and 
the vessels of it glazed and baked. 

Stork. [AS.] A wading bird of the family 
Ciconidae, nearly allied to the heron, with long 
slender legs and rather thick neck. The bill is 
as long as the head, and tapers to a point. In 
Holland, storks give up their aquatic habits and 
nest on tall trees, towers, or chimneys. Some- 
722 


times frames or false chimneys are made on the 
tops of houses for storks to build on. The nest 
is built of sticks and dry grass, and there are 
three or four bluish-white eggs, which take 
thirty days to hatch. The storks feed on garbage, 
snakes, frogs, rats, mice, and vermin. In winter 
they migrate to warmer regions. Before starting 
on their flight they assemble in large flocks of 
two or three thousand, and the common belief is 
that they consult as to their journey. When 
they return to Holland in spring, they are wel¬ 
comed as harbingers of that season. The white 
stork is found in Europe ; the black stork in 
Europe,'Asia, and Africa ; the black-necked stork 
is the East Indian jabiru. 

Stove. [Du.] A kind of box, generally made of 
iron, which stands in some part of the room, 
supplied with fuel from time to time through a 
door Stoves are more economical than grates, 
since less of the heat produced goes up the chim¬ 
ney, but they are not so healthful. Anthracite 
requires a stove with a base burner, that causes a 
smaller draft of air, much in use in the United 
States. Oil and gas stoves are much in use for 
heating, and gas stoves are coming into large use 
for cooking purposes. 

Straw. [AS.] The stalks or stems of wheat, rye, 
and other cereal grasses, after the grain has been 
thrashed. It is woven into hats, and made into 
boards and paper. Chip hats are not made out 
of straw, but from splints of Lombardy poplar. 

Straw 7 berry. A widely cultivated perennial 
plant, having a red, small berry, with delicious 
taste. In cultivation its runners spread along 
the ground. The flowers have five petals, and 
are mostly white, seated on a convex receptacle, 
which enlarges in the fruiting season, and be¬ 
comes pulpy and edible; so that what is popu¬ 
larly called the fruit is only the end of the flower 
stem greatly altered, and bearing the real fruit 
in the ripened ovaries over its surface, or sunk in 
the succulent mass. There are many varieties. 
Fragaria vesca is the European kind, and Fra- 
garia Virginica the American. The fruit has 
been enormously increased in size by cultivation. 

Strych 7 nine. [L., from Gk. strychnos, night¬ 
shade.] A strong poison got from the seeds of 
nux vomica. It is obtained as a white crystalline 
substance, and has a bitter, acrid taste. It is in¬ 
soluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol. In 
medicine it is used as a stimulant for the- nerves. 

Stuc 7 co. [Ital., from a Ger. root of stuck , a 
piece.] A kind of plaster made of lime, sand, 
and finely - crushed marble, for ornamenting 
walls. 

Stur 7 geon. [Old Fr.] A long, narrow fresh¬ 
water fish, the roe of which is made into caviare, 
and the air-bladder into isinglass. It has free 
gills, and its body is more or less covered with 
bony plates, in five longitudinal rows. The tail 
is heterocercal, having the vertebrae continued 
into the upper lobe, which is longer than the 
lower one, and the skeleton cartilaginous. It 
runs up rivers to spawn. The eggs sometimes 
make up nearly one-third of the fish, and there are 
over three million in one female. Sturgeons are 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


147 


found in Kurope and America, and in one season 
200 tons of caviare have been made on the Cas¬ 
pian. It is now made largely on the Delaware. 

Suck er. A fish of the carp family, many kinds 
of which are found in the rivers and lakes of the 
United States. It has no teeth, its lips being 
formed for sucking. It is found in the rivers in 
early spring, and is caught in dip-nets. The 
buffalo sucker of the Mississippi is sometimes 
more than a yard long. 

Sugar. [Fr. from Arab.] The sweet j uice of the 
sugar-cane and other plants pressed out and 
dried. It is soluble in water, generally crystalliz- 
able, neutral to vegetable colors, and is an or¬ 
ganic chemical compound of carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen. There are two distinct sugars— 
saccharoses or sucroses, and glucoses ( q. v.) or 
amyloids. The saccharoses include cane-sugar, 
beet, palm, sorghum, and maple sugar. The first 
two yield nearly the whole sugar-crop of the 
world. The cane-sugar comes from the tropics, 
that of the beetroot from the north temperate 
zone, very largely from Germany. After sugar 
is boiled and strained and purified by adding 
lime, and filtering through cotton and charcoal, 
it is poured into molds, and when cool forms 
loaf-sugar. The liquid which remains after the 
sugar crystallizes, is called molasses, it being a 
dark, sweet, sticky liquid, much used in cooking. 
Glucose or grape-sugar is made from starch by 
the action of heat and acids. Much of it is pro¬ 
duced from maize, being largely sold as the glu¬ 
cose sirup. 

SuUphur. [L,.] A yellow mineral, occurring in 
large quantities either as pyrites (sulphides), 
gypsum (sulphates), or native, mixed with gyp¬ 
sum. It is found in volcanic regions. It is puri¬ 
fied by distillation, and is obtained by sublima¬ 
tion as a lemon-yellow powder (flowers of sul¬ 
phur) or as sticks (brimstone). It burns with a 
blue flame and a peculiar irritating odor. It is 
used in gunpowder, and in making matches, in 
medicine, and in making sulphuric acid. Sul¬ 
phur is also obtained as crystals.— Sulphuric 
acid , the most important compound of sulphur 
and oxygen, is a heavy, corrosive oily liquid, 
colorless when pure, but usually of a brownish 
color. It is used in the manufacture of hydro¬ 
chloric and nitric acids, alizarin, soda, and 
bleaching-powders; in making ether, parch¬ 
ment, and nitro-glycerine, and in etching iron. 
It was formerly called vitriolic acid, and is popu¬ 
larly called vitriol or oil of vitriol. (See Epsom 
Salts.) 

Su / mach. A genus of small trees and shrubs, 
having numerous species, found in all parts of 
the world except Australia and the polar regions. 
The leaves of a kind grown in America are used 
by the Indians for tobacco. The seeds of an¬ 
other kind yield Japan wax or varnish. Chinese 
galls come from another species, and are largely 
used in tanning and dyeing. There are twelve 
kinds in the United States, and two of them are 
poisonous. These are the poison ivy and the 
swamp sumach, which cause a skin eruption, at¬ 
tended with violent itching. The Virginian or 


stag’s-liorn sumach is a common American spe¬ 
cies. The leaves are pinnate, the flowers in a 
crowded panicle, and the fruit globular, covered 
with hairs. Their scarlet leaves in autumn are 
conspicuous forest ornaments in America. 

Sun. [AS.] The body in the heavens that gives 
light and heat, and round which the earth and 
planets revolve. (See Solar System.) It is about 



92million miles distant from the earth, and its 
diameter is about 860,000 miles. It revolves on 
its own axis once in 25^ days. Its luminous 
surface is called the photosphere, above which 
is an envelope largely of hydrogen, called the 
chromosphere, visible through the spectro¬ 
scope, or at the time of a total solar eclipse. 
Above the chromosphere, and extending for 
millions of miles, are rays of light called the 
corona. Dark spots appear on the sun’s disc, and 
consist commonly of a black central portion with 
a surrounding border of lighter shade. These 
change in their size from points to spaces 50,000 
miles in diameter. It has been established that 
a maximum and a minimum number of sun 
spots occur in periods of 11 years. The sun is 
not a fixed body, round which the earth and 
other planets circulate, but it, with all the planets, 
has a motion through space. In regard \.o physi¬ 
cal structure , the sun is believed to be a mass of 
incandescent (glowing hot) gases, the tempera¬ 
ture of which is so high that none of the chemical 
elements entering into its composition can exist 
in any other than the gaseous state. The quan¬ 
tity of heat given off by the sun is enormous. 
There are several theories as to its origin, the 
most probable being that it is due to a gradual 
shrinkage of the sun's mass which reduces its 
power of containing heat. 

Sun=dial. An apparatus in common use as a time¬ 
keeper when clocks and watches were scarce and 
costly. It consisted of an upright style whose 

7 2 3 







148 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


shadow was thrown by the sun on a plate of 
metal. As the day went on the shadow moved 
over the marks 011 the dial, indicating the hours 
and their divisions. 

Sun=fish. A genus of fishes with short, rounded, 
and flattened bodies. There are small species in 
many streams, and the great sunfish of the At¬ 
lantic grows to the length of 4 feet and the weight 
of over 500 pounds. 

Sunflower. A tall plant, a native of America, 
having large marginal ray flowers with yellow 
rings. The seeds are used as food for cattle and 
poultry, and yield an excellent oil. The flowers 
abound in honey, and the leaves are useful as 
fodder. One of the tuberous species is the 
Jerusalem artichoke. 

Swal'low. [AS.] A small bird, with small legs 
and weak feet, but with long, poiute dwings and 
a forked tail, which are both favorable to switf 
flying. It flies at a rate of from 60 to 90 miles 
an hour, and delights in circling round places 
where insects abound, upon which it feeds. The 



house-martin or town swallow fixes ils mud nest 
under the eaves ofhouses. The sand-martin with 
its tiny beak bores holes in sandstone rocks, where 
it makes its nest at the farthest extremity with 
loose hay and a few goose feathers. There are a 
number of American species, a common one 
being the barn-swallow. The nest of the esculent 
swallow, which inhabits Ceylon and Sumatra, is 
much valued by the Chinese. It consists of sea¬ 
weed, which the birds swallow and mix with 
their saliva, and then deposit in layers round 
their nests, and the whole is hardened by the air. 
The nests are glued on rocks or inside caverns, 
near the sea-shore. When boiled, these nests, 
which are in reality a fine gelatine, yield a good 
qualitv of glue or jelly, which is made into soup. 
(See Swift.) 

Swan. [AS.] The largest and most graceful of 
all swimming birds. When full-grown its feathers 
are white, but when young they are bluish-gray. 
Its feathers are thick and oily, and cast off water. 
Its feet are webbed, and it swims rapidly. Its 
legs are placed far back, and this gives it a wad¬ 
dling walk. Its neck is longer than its legs, and 
so it can reach its food. It feeds on roots and 

7 2 4 


seeds of water-plants, and is fond of worms, 
small fishes, and snails. Its nest is built of grass 
and reeds on the banks of rivers or lakes. The 
swan is found all over the world, and being beau¬ 
tiful on the water, is when tame kept on ponds 
and ornamental waters. The black swan of 
Australia has a red bill crossed with a white band. 
The South American black-necked swan has a 
bright rose-colored double knob on its bill. 

Sweet = bread. Part of the inside of an animal, 
with a sweet taste and a likeness to bread, used 
as food. The thymus gland is called neck or 
throat sweet-bread, and the pancreas the belly 
sweet-bread. 

Sweet Flag. A kind of reed which flourishes 
along the banks of rivers or grows in swamps 
and ponds. It is found in the cooler sections of 
Europe and North America, also in some parts 
of Asia. Confectioners use its roots, which have 
a strong smell and a biting taste, in making 
some kinds of candy. 

Sweet=pea. An annual plant, Lathyrus odora- 
tus , or its many-colored sweet-scented blossoms. 

Sweet=potato. A plant which is not allied to the 
white potato, but belongs to the morniug-glory 
family. It is a creeping vine, bearing long root 
tubers of sw r eet taste. It was probably of Ameri¬ 
can origin, but is now widely cultivated. Many 
tropical varieties are known as yams. It needs 
a warmer climate than the Irish potato, and does 
not do well in Europe, but is widely grown in 
the United States, many millions of bushels 
being raised annually. 

Sweet=will / iam. A kind of pink of many differ¬ 
ent colors and varieties. 

Swift. [AS.] A quickly-flying bird of the Swal¬ 
low family. Its form and habits resemble those 
of the swallow. It has a shorter bill, but it has 
no complex vocal muscles. It nests in church 
steeples and under the tiles of roofs, and screams 
shrilly. The Australian and American swifts 
have rigid tips to the tail feathers. The Ameri¬ 
can chimney-swallow is a swift which has ac¬ 
quired the habit of building in chimneys, fasten¬ 
ing its nest, which is made of small twigs, to the 
wall by a strongly adhesive secretion. This glue 
is spread over the whole nest, and becomes very 
hard. 

Sword =fish. A large fish with the upper jaw 
long and pointed like a sword, which pierces 
four or five inches of solid wood. Its dorsal fin is 
high, and ventral fins are absent. It swims very 
fast, and is one of the deadliest enemies of the 
whale, which protects itself by diving to the bot¬ 
tom of the sea, whither the sword fish cannot 
follow. It is plentiful on the coasts of Massa¬ 
chusetts, where it is caught by the harpoon, and 
its flesh, though coarse, is eaten. 

Sycamore. [Gk.] A kind of fig-tree in Egypt 
and Syria; the great maple in Europe and the 
plane tree in America. 

Syrdnge. [Gk.] A tube fitted with a piston for 
sucking up and squirting out water and other 
liquids, used for injecting them into wounds or 
openings of the animal body, or in gardens for 
throwing liquids upon plants. 












I 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 

I 


Tack. [Celt.] A small nail with a broad, flat head ; 
also the direction of a ship in regard to the trim 
of her sails—the starboard tack when close 
hauled with the wind on her starboard side, the 
port tack when on the port side. In tacking or 
changing the direction, a vessel is brought to 
point at first directly to windward, and then so 
that the wind will blow against the other side. 

Tackle. [Scand.] Ropes and pulleys for lifting 
weights. Ground-tackle are anchors, cables, etc.; 
gun tackle, the apparatus for hoisting cannon. 

lad'pole. A frog ( q . v.) in its youngest state. In 
this stage it breathes by means of external or in¬ 
ternal gills, and has a fin-like tail. 

Tail. [AS.] The long flexible part of an animal 
that terminates its body behind. It contains a 
series of movable vertebrae, and is covered with 
flesh and hairs or scales. The tail of birds con¬ 
sists of fused vertebrae ; the tail of fishes ends in 
a caudal fin. Woodpeckers climb and rest on the 
stems of trees with their tail feathers. 

TaiI / or=bird. An Asiatic or East Indian bird that 
makes its nest by sewing together the leaves of 
trees, and in doing so uses its beak and claws in¬ 
stead of a needle. 

Tal low. [AS. or Scand. talg.~\ The fat of animals 
of the ox or sheep kind. Its solidity is due to 
the large amount of stearin it contains. It is 
used to make candles (q. v.). —The Tallow-tree 
grows in China, and produces from its seeds a 
substance resembling tallow. 

TanTarind. [Arab.] A lofty, wide-spreading tree 
in the Indies, with flowers in racemes, pinnate 
leaves, and pods abounding in acid pulp of cool¬ 
ing and laxative qualities. West Indian tamar¬ 
inds are preserved in sirup, but East Indian fruits 
are put up without sirup. 

Tam'arisk. [R. tamariscus A tree or shrub 



TAPIR. 


with small scale-like leaves and clusters of white 
or pink flowers. Its bark is used as an astringent, 
and the ashes of the plant yield sulphate of soda. 

TarrCbourine. A musical instrument consisting 
of a piece of parchment stretched on the top of 
a hoop, furnished with little bells. In play it is 
struck by the hand or elbow, and the bells jingled. 

Tan'ager. A group of American birds conspicu¬ 
ous for fheir brilliant colors. They represent the 


finches of Europe and Asia. The most beautiful 
of them, the scarlet tanager, comes from Mexico 
to the United States in April, its range extending 
to Canada. The male is of a bright scarlet. 

Tandem. A Ratin word meaning at length. Ap¬ 




plied to horses driven one in front of the other. 
A bicycle carrying two, three or four persons. 

Tan / nic A / cid. Acid derived from tannin , which 
is the astringent principle of oak-bark or gall- 
nuts, and is used in tanning and as an astringent. 
It is the basis of common ink. It is sometimes 
used to describe all astringent substances in the 
vegetable kingdom—in willow, tea, coffee, etc. 

Tan'iiing. [Fr. tanner , from Armorican tann, 
oak-bark.] The turning of skins into leather 
(q. v.) by steeping in water mixed with oak-bark. 

Tape. [AS., from R. tapete , cloth for hangings.] 
A narrow woven band used for tying and bind¬ 
ing.— Tape-worm, along, flat, parasitical worm, 
with small head, no mouth, but having suckers 
and sometimes hooks for adhesion to the walls of 
the intestines. The pork thread-worm from pigs, 
the beef tape-worm from young cattle, and the 
broad tape-worm are parasites of man. 

Tap'estry. [Fr. tapisserie.~\ Cloth of wool and 
silk, covered with w r oven or sewed figures, for 
hanging on walls. Tapestry carpet resembles 
Brussels carpet in having the colors of the warp 
printed before weaving. 

Tapio' ca. [Braz.] A granular substance got by 
heating the manioc root. The manioc or cassava 
root is bitter, and has a poisonous sap, which by 
grating, pressing, and baking is lost. It is grown 
in the West Indies and in Africa. Tapioca is 
much used in puddings and as a thickening for 
soups. 

Ta'pir. [Braz.] An animal with a thick skin, 
short ears, short neck, and long prehensile upper 
lip. It is between three and four feet high and 
from five to six feet long, and in general form 
reminds us of the hog. The tapir has three toes 
on the hind feet and four toes on the fore feet, 
but the outermost toe is of very little use. Its 
long nose is like a rudiment of the elephant’s 

725 



















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


150 


trunk. There are two kinds of tapirs: one, a 
native of South America, is of a dusky-brown 
color; the other lives in Sumatra and Java, and 
is black, with a broad white band across the body. 
Tapirs are harmless, gentle creatures, but they 
can give a severe bite with their big teeth when 
attacked. They have great strength and can 
force their way through the thick underwood of 
tropical forests to the water, of which they are 
veiy fond. 

Tar. [AS.] A black, sticky liquid, distilled from 
pine trees and from coal. When charcoal is pro¬ 
duced, an arrangement is made for collecting tar. 
From wood-tar is distilled wood-vinegar or pyro- 
lignean acid, from which is produced wood- 
naphtha. Wood-tar is got from the Scotch fir, 
the Siberian larch, and other fir-tree roots. Coal- 
tar is a product in making gas, and yields crude 
naphtha and pitch. Mixed with wood-naphtha, 
crude naphtha is a solvent of resins. Benzole, 
carbolic acid, and aniline colors are all obtained 
from coal-tar. (See Coal-tar .) 

Taran / tula. A poisonous spider found near Taren- 
tum, in South Italy ; others are found in Texas. 
(See Spider.) 

Tare. [O.E.] The vetch or tare somewhat re¬ 
sembles the pea. The “ winter ” vetch is sown 
in autumn, and is cut in May ; spring vetches are 
sown in February. The vetch likes clayey or 
marly soil, and is cut little by little as fodder for 
cattle and horses, or sheep are penned upon it. 
The winter vetch is useful, as it comes when 
other forage is scarce. 

TarpaiFlin or Tarpau'Iing. A piece of coarse 
canvas covered with tar to keep out wet. 

Tar 7 tan. Woolen cloth woven in stripes or 
checks, formerly much worn by Scottish High¬ 
landers, whose clans were known by the dif¬ 
ferent-colored tartans. Trews are trousers made 
of tartans. 

Tea. [Chin.] The leaves of the tea-plant. The 
tea-plant, chiefly cultivated in China and in 
Assam, is a low bushy shrub, bearing a small 
white flower, and having leaves with saw-like 
edges, like those of the rose. Hither black or 
green tea can be made from the leaves of the 
same plant. For black tea, the leaves are picked 
and exposed to the air in large heaps for one or 
two days. They are then placed on tables, and 
rolled by hand, and then dried or roasted in 
large iron pans, when their color changes to a 
dark, almost black, hue. For green tea, the 
leaves are dried almost as soon as picked, when 
they preserve much of their natural color. The 
dried leaves of the tea-plant contain a white 
crystalline substance called thein. When boiling 
water is poured on the leaves, thein, or the active 
principle of tea, is dissolved out. The liquid so 
obtained is called an “infusion.” Green tea 
contains rather more thein than black tea, and so 
produces a stronger infusion. Tea is a favorite 
table beverage from its stimulating properties. 
The cultivation of this plant in the Southern 
United States has proved successful. 

Teak. [Malabar.] A tree found in India, the 
Hast Indies, and in Africa, the wood of which is 

726 


very hard and durable. It is used in ship-build¬ 
ing, and in the construction of buildings. 

Teal. [O.E.] A small fresh-water duck. The 
male is handsomely colored, and has a bright 
green or blue patch on the wings. In America 
teals are valued as game birds. 

Telautograph. A form of telegraph, invented 
by Prof. Elisha Gray, by which writing and 
drawings can be transmitted and reproduced in 
facsimile. 

TeFegraph. [Gk. tele, far ; and graphein , to 
write.] Stretched wires along which messages 
are sent by electricity. (See Electric Telegraph.) 
The messages are given by a pointer in the 
Wheatstone, by a fillet of paper in Hughes’s, by 
dots and dashes in Morse’s, and by symbols in 
Bain’s system. 

Telepathy. [Gr. tele., far; pathos, feeling 
with.] The supposed transfer of thought from 
mind to mind without speech or other physi¬ 
cal communication. It is claimed that the 
thought of one person has been recognized by 
another through a distance of many miles. 

TeFpherage. [Gr. tele., far; pherein, to carry.] 
A method of conveying goods along a suspended 
wire by aid of an electric motor. It has been 
used to carry ore from a mine and to convey logs 
from a forest. 

Telephone. [Gk. tele, far ; and phone, a sound.] 
An instrument which enables persons to talk to 
each other at considerable distances by electric 
wires. In its use a thin sheet of metal is set in 


LAne-wzrZ 



DIAGRAM OF TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER. 

NS, N’ S’ cylindrical steel magnet surrounded at one end by 
a coil of wire, bb’, whose ends are connected by wires, with 
line wire and the earth, E <?, is mouthpiece in front of 
which is a very thin sheet of metal which vibrates.- 

vibration by the tones of a person’s voice. These 
vibrations cause rapid alternations of strength in 
a current of electricity passing through a wire. 
At the opposite end of the circuit the varying 
currents act to set a second thin plate in vibra¬ 
tion, and sounds are conveyed to the listener’s ear 
like those of the speaker’s voice. In this way 
the human voice can be transmitted for more 
than a thousand miles, and by a recent invention 
may soon be heard several thousand miles away. 

TeFescope. [Gk. tele, far; and skopein, to see.] 
An instrument consisting of a tube and magnify¬ 
ing glasses for seeing things at a distance. In re¬ 
flecting telescopes the image is formed by one or 
two concave mirrors, a large one at the lower 
end and a small one at the upper end. Sir 
William Herschel’s telescope contained one 




















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


mirror. In refracting telescopes the image is 
formed by refraction in an object-glass, and is 
magnified by an eye-glass. The largest refracting 
telescopes, made by Alvan S. Clark, are that at 
the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cali¬ 
fornia, which has a 36-inch object-glass, and 
magnifies from 180 to 3,000 diameters ; and the 
Yerkes of the Chicago University, with a 40-inch 



THE LICK TELESCOPE. 

object-glass and 64 feet of focal length. One of 
48-inch object-glass was shown at the Paris Ex¬ 
position of 1900. The Lick telescope separated 
the closest double stars known to us, and dis¬ 
covered the fifth satellite of Jupiter. Lord Rosse’s 
telescope at Parsonstown is a reflector with 72- 
inch aperture. Common’s reflector at Ealing is 
5 feet in diameter. If the brightness of a star seen 
with the eye alone is one, with a 2-inch telescope 
it is 100 times as bright; with a 4-inch telescope 
it is 400 times as bright; with an 8-inch telescope 
it is 1,600 times as bright; with a 32-inch telescope 
it is 25,600 times as bright; with a 36-inch teles¬ 
cope it is 32,400 times as bright. That is, stars 
can be seen with the 36-inch telescope which are 
30,000 times fainter than the faintest stars visible 
to the naked eye. 

Tem / perature. [L-] The amount or degree of 
heat in any person, place, or thing ; the condi¬ 
tion which indicates whether heat will flow from 
one body to another, the body parting with heat 
being said to have a higher temperature, and the 
one receiving it a lower temperature than the 
other. In practice, temperature is measured by 
the expansion produced by heat in a liquid or a 
gas in a thermometer. 

Ten / dril. [Fr. from L. tener , tender.] The long, 
slender, leafless shoot of a plant by which it 
clings to a support. They are the ends of stems, 
as in the grape vine; axillary branches in the 
passion flower, or ends of leaves in the pea. 

TerFtacle. [L.] A kind of arm or fleshy process 
attached to the head or body of some insects and 
other animals, by which they feel, grasp, or move. 


151 

Ter / ra=cot / ta. [L. terra , the earth ; cocta , baked.] 
A kind of pottery or baked red clay. (See 
Brick.) 

Ter / rier. [Fr. terre , the earth.] A small dog 
that burrows into holes in the earth after rabbits, 
rats, etc. The Skye has long hair and drooping 
ears. English and black and tan have short, 
close, smooth hair and upright ears. Fox ter¬ 
riers are both smooth and rough in variety. 

Thatch. [AS.] A covering of straw, reeds, or 
rushes for roofs of buildings or stacks of hay or 
grain. Palm leaves are used in the West Indies 
for thatching. 

ThermorrFeter. [Gk. thermos , hot; and rnetron, 
measure.] An instrument for measuring changes 
of temperature by the contraction or expansion 
of a liquid or a gas. The three scales at present 
in use are—(1) the Fahrenheit, in common use 
in Great Britain and the United States ; (2) the 
Centigrade, used on the Continent and in scien¬ 
tific works generally ; (3) Reaumur’s scale, used 
in Russia. In Fahrenheit’s scale the freez¬ 
ing-point is marked 32°F. and the boiling-point 
2i2°F. the intervening space containing 180°. 
In the Centigrade scale the space between 
the two points is divided into 100 equal parts— 
the freezing-point being marked o° C., and the 
boiling point ioo° C. In Reaumur’s scale the 
freezing-point is marked o° R., and the boiling- 
point 8o° R., the space between the freezing and 
the boiling-points being divided into 80 equal 
parts. Since 180° on the Fahrenheit scale cor¬ 
respond to ioo° on the Centigrade, the length of 
one degree Fahrenheit is ioo-i8oth or 5 9th of 
one degree Centigrade, and any reading on the 
Fahrenheit scale is converted into the cor¬ 
responding Centigrade reading by the following 
rule : Subtract 32 and multiply the remainder by 
5~9th. When very low temperatures are required 
an alcohol thermometer is used, because mercury 
freezes at about -38° F. Air is of great use in 
determining temperatures above those at which 
mercury can be employed (mercury boils at 66o° 
F.). Other types of thermometers are 'maxi¬ 
mum, minimum , and solar radiation or self- 
registering thermometers. (See Fahrenheit, 
Reaumur .) 

ThirrUble. (From thumb.) A sheild for the finger, 
used in sewing. It is usually made of metal, and 
has on the outer surface small pits to catch the 
head of the needle. A machine-made silver 
thimble takes more than 20 men to make it. 
The silver is rolled into strips, cut, punched, 
edges turned, stamped into shape, indented, pol¬ 
ished, and engraved. 

Thistle. [AS.] A plant with prickles along the 
stalks and leaves. There are many varieties. 
The cotton thistle, the musk thistle, and the bull 
or spear thistle are used as national emblems of 
Scotland. Seeds of thistles have downy fibres, and 
are thus easily blown about and carried great dis¬ 
tances. 

Thrush. A large family of insect-eating birds, 
found in nearly all parts of the world. The 
wood-thrush is one of the most abundant Ameri¬ 
can species, and is noted for the beauty of its 

727 


































































152 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


song. The liermit-thrusli and the mocking-bird 
(i q . v.) are other American species. The brown- 
tlirusli, or thrasher, as it is called, is a handsome 
bird, with habits like those of the mocking-bird, 
which it ranks next to as a singer. The song- 
thrush of Europe, sometimes called the throstle 
in England and the mavis in Scotland, is much 
like the wood-thrush. The robin, the blue-bird, 
and the wren belong to the thrushes. 

ITiun'der. [AS.] The loud noise which follows 
lightning. The rattle of a discharge of atmos¬ 
pheric electricity. 

rhyme. [Gk.] A pungent, sweet-smelling plant, 
much used to give a relish to seasoning and 
soups. Oil of thyme, distilled from it, is used in 
liniments. 

Tick. A species of insect parasites which are often 
very annoying. They are of minute size and 
have the mouih shaped like a sucker. They are 
found in thick woods on plants, and attach them¬ 
selves to any animal that passes. They at¬ 
tach their sucker to the skin and work their way 
into the flesh, sucking the blood. They multiply 
so fast that many horses and cattle die from ex¬ 
haustion, due to loss of blood. The ox-tick, 
when filled with blood, is half an inch long. The 
water-tick, another variety, always lives in the 
water. 

Tides. [AS.] The rising and falling of the sea, 
caused by the moon’s action. Owing to gravity, 
the moon exerts an attraction on every part of 
the f^arth, whether liquid or solid, but only the 
liquid parts which constitute the ocean are free 
to yield to the attractive force. When the moon 
is overhead, the water is drawn outwards and 
heaped up on the side of the earth next the 
moon. The projecting portions of the water un¬ 
der the moon, on both sides of the earth, repre¬ 
sent the positions of high tides, while the low 
tides occupy the intermediate positions, and we 
experience what is called high or low water, ac¬ 
cording as the higher or lower part of the wave 
reaches our shores. The sun as well as the moon 
produces tides ; but owing to its greater distance, 
the effect produced by the sun is small in com¬ 
parison with the attraction of the moon. When 
the sun and the moon act together we have 
spring tides; when in opposition we have neap 
tides. When the tide rushes up a narrow chan¬ 
nel, it rises to an unusual height. In the Bay of 
Fundy the rise and fall is not less thau fifty feet, 
and in the Bristol channel there is a rise of about 
thirty-eight feet at spring tides. In the Medi¬ 
terranean the tides have only a small range, 
varying from one to two feet. 

TTger. [Gk.] A carnivorous quadruped, like the 
lion in all its habits, except that it roams 
about by day as well as by night. In color it is 
yellow, with black stripes across the body. Its 
body is longer and stronger than the lion’s, but 
shaped more like a cat’s. It has no mane. Its 
under part, as well as the chest and throat, are 
white, and so are the long hairs on each side of 
its face. The tail is like a cat’s in shape, and has no 
tuft at the end. The tiger is found chiefly in India 
and Ceylon. Indian princes hunt it with elephants- 
728 


Tile. [AS. tigel.~\ A piece of baked clay of a 
curved or flat .shape used in roofing houses or for 
drains. (S Brick.) 

Tin. [AS.] A metal .white, like silver, easily 
melted or beaten out. Owing to the fact that it 
does not tarnish either in dry or moist air, it is 



— -_—— 

TIGER. 


much used for cooking-vessels, especially in the 
form of tin-plate. Tin is also used in the prepa¬ 
ration of several important alloys, such as 
bronze, pewter, Britannia metal, bell-metal, etc. 
It does not occur in the native state, the tin of 
commerce being obtained from the dioxide, 
known to miners as tinstone. The chief Euro¬ 
pean supply of this mineral is derived from the 
mines of Cornwall. It is also met with in the 
Malayan peninsula, the isle of Banca, and Aus¬ 
tralia. Deposits have been found in the United 
States, but none that paid to work. I11 order to 
prepare the metal, the tinstone is broken into 
fragments; and as it remains among the debris 
unchanged in character, it can, like gold, be 
separated from the lighter portions of rock by 
washing. It is then reduced to the metallic 
state by roasting in a furnace.— Tin-foil fin 
beaten out very thin, like a leaf. 

Tin=plate. The name given sheet-iron coated with 
tin. It is largely manufactured in South Wales, and 
of late years in the United States. The plates are 
dipped in acid and afterwards washed in water to 
insure their being perfectly clean. They are 
then toughened by passing them between polished 
rollers, coated, and passed between steel rollers. 
Tin-plate is used extensively in the manufacture 
of kitchen utensils, and for the tins required in 
preserving meat, fruit, and vegetables. 

Tinsel. [Fr.] A thin kind of cloth interwoven 
with gold or silver threads, or thin metal covered 
thinly with gold or silver. 

Tint. [Fr.*] A shade of a color. Red and black 
make brown ; red and yellow, orange ; blue, 
black, and red, olive ; blue and lead, pearl; blue, 
white, and lake, purple ; blue, white, and black, 
pearl gray ; white and lake, rose; white and 
brown, chestnut; white and carmine, pink; 
white and green, bright or pea green ; white and 
lampblack, lead; white and purple, French white; 




153 


encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


white and yellow, straw ; white, yellow, and red, 
cream; white, yellow, and Venetian red, buff; 
white, lake, and Vermillion, flesh color. 

Tit mouse. [O.H.] A little song bird which feeds 
on insects. The blue, marsh, crested, and long¬ 
tailed titmice are the best known European 
species. I he chickadee or black- cap tit is a com¬ 
mon American species, and the tufted tit the 
largest. Tit is the titlark ; tomtit is the blue 
titmouse or the wren. 

Toad. [AS.] A crawling animal like the frog, 
but without teeth, and more terrestrial in its 
habits. It has a thick and heavy body, covered 
with wart-like glands, which secrete an acid 
fluid. The tongue is well developed, and can be 
protruded rapidly to capture insects. The skin 
absorbs moisture, and is cast off at intervals and 
swallowed. The winter is fepent in a torpid state 
in holes and crevices. Toads are long-lived, and 
are found all over the world. They feed on 
insects injurious to vegetation. Tree-toads have 
loud, shrill cries, and are often brightly colored. 
The Surinam toad of Guiana is eaten by the 
natives. Its eggs are not laid in water, but are 
received by the male, who deposits them on the 
back of the female, where the skin thickens 
between the eggs, till each is invested in a sac, 
in which the young go through changes, and 
each emerges a perfect toad. 

Tobac'co. [Span., from Ind.] A plant of the 
Nightshade family, the leaves of which when 
dried are used for smoking. It was found in 
America—in use among the Indians—by the 
Spanish discoverers. The plant is four or five 
feet high, has a moist, hairy stem, and leaves 
sometimes two feet long. The leaves are arranged 
round a single stalk, and the flowers, which are 
white and shaped like a funnel, grow at the top 
of the plant. Only plants grown for seed are 
allowed to blossom. It is grown ill the West 
Indies, in the southern United States and in other 
countries. Much is grown in the Philippine 
Islands. Tobacco leaves rolled up tightly form 
cigars. The leaves are also twisted, pressed into 
cake, or cut fine. In making chewing and smok¬ 
ing tobacco in the United States, the leaves arc 
sweetened, colored, and flavored with molasses, 
liquorice, salt, soda, saltpetre, and aniseed. Snuff 
is the leaf and stalks ground into powder. Much 
tobacco is used in the form of cigarettes. 

Toboggan. An Indian sledge, made of a piece of 
birch-bark, with the front end turned up, and a 
rope attached to drag it over the snow. This 
became much used by the white settlers in 
Canada, and is now employed in the sport of 
sliding down a hill of snow, or a timber slope 
called a toboggan slide. In this form it is made 
of hickory splints, 5 to 15 feet long. 

Toma'to. [Span.] An annual plant of the Night¬ 
shade family ; also its fruit, which was formerly 
called love apple. It is of a red or yellow color. 
The tomato is of South American origin, but is now 
an important article of diet in the United States, 
England, France, and Italy. Its stem is weak, 
its leaves irregular, and both are clothed with 



TONGUE AND EYE OF BUTTERFLY. 


hairs of a resinous substance. It has yellow 
flowers, and its fruit requires a high temperature 
to ripen. 

Tongue. [A.S.] The fleshy movable organ of the 
mouth, used to taste or speak.In some insects, 
as the butterfly,it is a very curious organ. 

1 ooth. [AS.] A small, hard body in the jaws, 
used for biting and chewing food. Uike the nails 
and hair, teeth mav really be considered as 

portions of the 
skin made com¬ 
pact and dense 
by the deposit 
of various min¬ 
eral substances. 
Man has two 
sets of teeth; 
the first set, the 
milk-teeth or 
tern porary teeth, 
are twenty i n 
number. The)' 
are got when two years old. At six years the 
permanent teeth, growing up from beneath the 
milk-teeth, push the latter out, and at ten all the 
temporary teeth have been replaced by per¬ 
manent teeth, altogether thirty-two in number— 
sixteen being placed in the upper, and sixteen in 
the lower jaw. Teeth arc of different shapes, 
because some are intended for one purpose, and 
some for another. The part of the tooth im¬ 
bedded in the gum is called the fang, while that 
above the gum is known as the crown ; the crown 
of each tooth is overlaid with a pearly white 
enamel. The eight teeth in the front of the 
mouth—four in the upper, and four in the lower 
jaw—have sharp cutting edges like chisels, and 
are called incisors ; they are useful for biting or 
separating food. One on each side above and 
below are the four canine teeth or eye-teeth, 
called canine because they are so large and 
prominent in the dog (Eatin canis , a dog), and 
also in all beasts of prey. These canine teeth 
are useful for tearing and for biting the food. 
Farther back in the jaws are eight teeth (two on 
each side above and below) called pre-molars, 
because they are next to the molars, twelve large 
teeth which occupy the hinder parts of the jaws. 
Both molars and pre-molars are mainly useful in 
grinding the food ; whence their name, from the 
Eatin word viola, a mill. The four last molars 
at the ends of the jaws are called the “wisdom 
teeth,” because they are the last to be cut, 
usually not making their way through the gum 
till the age of twenty one. The teeth are not 
perfectly solid. Inside of each tooth there is a 
little hollow called the pulp-cavity, which con¬ 
tains several nerve-branches. These nerves pass 
along each fang into the gum, and arc there con¬ 
nected with other nerves which go to the brain. 
When from any cause the enamel of the tooth is 
worn away, the delicate contents of the pulp 
cavity are exposed to the air, and to pressure 
from any little hard bits of food which may get 
inside the hollow place. Cold or pressure on the 
qerves produces the intense pain called toothache, 

7 2 9 










154 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 




To'paz. A mineral ranked among the precious 
stones. It is found in Scotland, Cornwall, 
Saxony, Siberia, the United States, Mexico, and 
Brazil. The finest varieties are found in Brazil 
and the Ural Mountains, and are of a deep 
yellow tint, while those of Siberia are blue, the 
other colors found being white and green. They 
are frequently found in the cavities of granite 
rocks, and consist of a silicate of alumina in which 
fluorine takes the place of oxygen. It is next to 
the sapphire in hardness. The topaz of the an¬ 
cients, obtained from Topazos , an island in the 
Red Sea, was chrysolite. 

Torpe 'do. [L,.] A kind of fish related to the rays, 
with the power of giving an electric shock ; also 
an explosive below the water to explode an 
f 


SELF-PROPELLING TORPEDO. 

enemy’sship when touched or fired by electricity, 
or a sub marine boat carrying the explosive. 

Torpe'do boat. A recent form of naval vessel 
used to discharge torpedoes against a hostile 
vessel for the purpose of destroying it. The.se 
vessels are small and very swift, some of them 
making over 30 knots an hour. As yet they j 
have not proved very serviceable in naval war¬ 
fare. 

Tor / toise. [Fr., from L,. tortus , twisted.] A 
creeping and swimming animal (so called from 
its crooked feet) covered with a hard shell, with 
openings for the head, legs, and tail. The tor¬ 
toise is also called turtle , but this name is some¬ 
times restricted to the marine species, tortoise to 
the land species, and terrapin to fresh-water 
species. Tortoises are mostly used for food ; and 
the green turtle, a marine animal, is extensively 
used for soup. The common box tortoise is more 
thoroughly protected than ordinary turtles, be¬ 
cause it has joints at the bottom of the shell, and 
can draw up the under parts all round the edge 
of the box.— Tortoise shell. The shell of the 
hawk’s-bill turtle, separated into thin plates, 
softened in hot water, and shaped in molds, in 
which it may be impressed with ornamental 
figures. It is used for combs, knife-handles, etc. 

Tou'can. [Braz.] A fruit-eating bird, with a 
very large but light and thin beak, often as long 
as the body of the bird. It is brightly colored. 


Tourmaline. A mineral found frequently in 
granite, gneiss, and mica schist. Some varieties 
are more or less transparent, others opaque. The 
transparent colored kinds are used as jewels, and 
prisms of tourmaline are used in experiments on 
the polarization oflight. 

Tow / er. [Fr. from L. Tunis.'] A building of con¬ 
siderable height used for observations or for 
architectural effect. Gay-Lussac's and Glover's 
tozvers are used in making sulphuric acid. The 
Tower of London is famous in history as a State 
Prison. The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy, is 
180 feet high, and is 14 feet out of perpendicular. 
The Eiffel Tower , Paris, is 985 feet high and 
built in 1889. 

Trade=winds. Persistent winds which rise in the 
torrid and lower temperate zones and blow 
steadily towards the equator, being deflected 
westwardly by the earth’s rotation, so that 
they become northeast or southeast winds, 
as they are north or south of the equator. 
They are caused by the ascent of heated air 
in the equatorial region, and the inflow of 
colder air to take its place. The ascending 
air outflow's to the north and south and 
gradually descends to the surface, making 
what are known as anti-trade winds. The 
trades diverge to the north or south as the 
sun does so in its annual round. 

Tram'way. [E. train, a bar ; and way.] The 
English term for a street railway ; a road 
laid with beams or rails, on which wagons 
or carriages can run easily. 

Trans'it instrument. An instrument for 
detecting the time of transit of a star across 
the meridian. It consists of a telescope 
mounted on a horizontal axis. 

Trap. [AS.] A contrivance to prevent the passage 


THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA. 

of offensive gases along a drain. The siphon trap, 
which is perhaps the best and simplest, is merely 
a bend in the pipe, which remains filled wdth 


73° 
















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 






and 



TRAP. 


water. There ought to be traps placed where the 
pipes from the inside of the house join the drain, 
there should also be a trap just where the 

drain joins the sewer. 
Eut drains and sewers 
ought both to be venti¬ 
lated —to have openings 
for the bad gases to es¬ 
cape. 

Trapeze'. [Gk.] A 
swinging bar, li u n g 
from a roof, on which 
athletes perform. 
Trawl. [Fr.] A net like 
a bag used for catching 
fish. It is attached to 
a beam with iron frames 
at its end, and is dragged 
at the bottom of the sea. 

Trea'cle. [Fr., from Gk. theriaka, drugs for heal¬ 
ing the bites of wild beasts.] Molasses drained 
from sugar-refining molds. 

Tre'foil. [Fr., from I. tres, three; and folium , 
leaf.] A three-leaved ornament, like the three¬ 
leaved clover. 

Trel'Iis. [Fr., from D. trichila, an arbor.] A kind 
of network made by crossing strips of wood or 
iron, for supporting climbing plants,or asascreen. 

Tre'pan. To take out a portion of the skull in 
case of injury to the head or disease of the brain. 
This is done by means of a small circular saw, 
which cuts out a round piece of the bone. In 
healing, the bone throws out granulations, which 
gradually ossify, but do not quite close up the 
opening. 

Trichi'na. A minute worm which infests the intes¬ 
tinal canal of certain animals, including man 

and the hog. This is in 
the adult procreative 
state. The young, larval 
trichinae bury themselves 
in the muscles, where 
they exist as spirally- 
boiled worms in minute 
cists. Their danger to 
man is in their immense 
numbers. In a cat, a 
single ounce of flesh was 
estimated to contain 325,000 trichinae. They enter 
man principally through partly cooked pork. 
Thorough cooking destroys them and obviates 
the danger of infection. 

Tri'cycle. [Gk.] A vehicle with three -wheels, 
one or more of which are turned by the feet by 
means of pedals. 

Trout. [AS., from Gk. trogein , to eat.] A beauti¬ 
ful silvery fresh-water fish of the genus Salmo , 
very much prized for food, and a favorite fish for 
anglers. The most important are the brown- 
trout and the salmon-trout. Its habits are soli¬ 
tary and very predaceous. It feeds upon worms, 
minnows, insects, and caterpillars. The minnow 
is the most taking bait for large trout. I lie trout 
is found in lakes and rivers, but the most brilliant 
and beautiful fishes are found in streams flowing 
over chalky and rocky soils. River-trout attain 



to a length of 30 inches. Sea-trout or bull-trout 
are found 3 feet in length. 

Tridac'na. The largest of the bivalve molluscs. 
A single shell has been known to weigh more 
than 500 pounds. The valves are deeply fur¬ 
rowed and handsomely grooved, and are used as 
ornaments for grottoes and fountains. The 
animal is edible, and one makes a meal for several 
persons. 

Tri'Iobite. A fossil crustacean belonging to the 
primary geologic age. There are numerous 
species in the Silurian and Devonian periods and 
a few in the coal strata,—named from their three- 
lobed bodies. Their nearest modern representa¬ 
tive is the King-crab. 

TroFley. Formerly a small truck or set of wheels 
carrying a box or car-body. Now a grooved 
wheel which rolls in contact with an electric 
wire, and takes off the current to transmit it to 
the motor of an electric or trolley car beneath. 

Trump'et. A wind musical instrument with a 
clear and ringing tone. Its scale in the lower 
octaves is limited to the first natural harmonics, 
but by valves or pistons trumpets can produec 
every note in their compass. 

Tset'se fly. An African insect, whose bite is 
harmless to man, but nearly always fatal to the 
ox, horse, or dog. It is about the size of the 
common house-fly, and lives by sucking blood. 
It is thought to transmit a disease germ to the 
blood. 

Tube =rose. A variety of the primrose, cultivated 
in gardens for its vari-colored, gay-looking 
flowers. 

Tu'lip. [Fr., from Per., a turban.] A garden 
plant growing from a bulb, and so called because 
of its supposed likeness to a turban. In the 
seventeenth century the cultivation of tulips in 
Holland became a mania, and tulip-bulbs were 
sold and resold as stocks on ’Change. 

Tulle. [Fr.] A kind of thin silk or muslin netting 
for veils ; so called from Tulle, a town in France. 

Tum'bler. A large drinking-glass, formerly so 
made that it could not be set down without 
tumbling over, and thus requiring the liquid to be 
finished at one draught; a kind of pigeon which 
tumbles when flying. 

Tun / ing=fork. A11 instrument of steel like a fork, 
which when struck gives out a fixed tone taken 
as a key-note. 

Tun'nel. [Fr.] A passage underground or through 
a hill. The St. Gothard tunnel is f / 2 miles long 
(48,840 feet) ; that of Mont Cenis, 39,840 feet; 
Hoosac, 25,080 feet; that under the Mersey /\ l / 2 
miles, including approaches. Tunnels are now 
blasted out with nitro-glycerine fired by elec¬ 
tricity. 

Tun'ny. [Gk., to dart along.] A large fish of 
the Mackerel kind, found in the Mediterranean 
and Atlantic. 

Tur'bine. [L,.] A water-wheel with curved floats 
or buckets, against which the water acts either 
from above downward or from below, or inward 
from an external casing. 

Tur'bot. [Fr., from L,. turbo , a whipping top.] 
A large, round flat-fish of the Flounder kind, 

73 1 


























































156 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


used for food The upper side is brownish and 
lower side white. It is voracious and feeds on 
other fishes. It is abundant in the North Sea. 
At one catch off Jutland 240,000 were caught, 
averaging more than one pound each. There 
are no turbots on the American coasts. 

Tureen'. [Fr., from L. terra, earth.] A large, 
deep dish of earthenware in which soup is served. 

Tur'key. A large scratching fowl, which received 
its name because it was by some supposed to 
come from Turkey, but really a native of North 
America. It is now bred in many countries. The 
tame turkey is duller in hue of feathers, but 
is generally much larger than the wild turkey. 
Its flesh is much valued, and in the United States 
roast turkey is the favorite Christmas dish. 

Tur'meric. The root of an Fast Indian ginger¬ 
like plant. It is used as a curry, to give color to 
varnishes, to dye silks and woolens yellow, and 
as a test for alkalies. 

Tur'nip. [Fr. tour, a turn; and AS. nacp, a 
turnip.] A plant with a large round root, taper¬ 
ing downwards. A native of Europe and the 
temperate parts of Asia. It is a common garden 
vegetable, and in many countries it is largely 
grown for sheep and cattle food. The Swedish 
turnip, or ruta baga , is much used in Europe for 
this purpose. 

Tur'pentine. [Gk. terebinthos.] The oily resin 
of the terebinth and some kinds of larch, fir, and 
pine. A cut is made through the bark of the 
tree, and the sap flows into jars. This is viscous 
like honey, and is crude turpentine. Oil of tur¬ 
pentine is distilled from crude turpentine, the 
solid part being yellow resin, used in making 
soap. Turpentine is used extensively in mixing 
paints and varnishes, and is also used in medi¬ 
cine. 

Turquoise' ( turkois ). [Same word as Turkish .] 
A precious stone of bluish-green or sky-blue 
color, brought from Persia. It is a phosphate of 
aluminium, its color being due to the presence of 
iron or copper. 

Tur'tle. [From Span, for tortoise .] A reptile 
enclosed in a double shield or shell, from which 
the head, legs, and tail are protruded, but under 
which they can be drawn. The shell is an expan¬ 
sion of the vertebrae and ribs. Turtles do not 
shed their shells, and have no teeth, but have 
horny jaws. They are ocean swimmers, coming 
on shore only to lay their eggs in the sands. 


Some of them are very large. The name is also 
often given to the laud tortoise. (See Tortoise.) 
The green turtle is much esteemed as a table 
delicacy. 

Tusk. [AS.] A very long, pointed tooth on each 
side of the mouth, found in certain wild animals, 
as wild boars, elephants, etc. 

Twi'light. [AS. twi, double; and light.'] The 
dim, faint light before sunrise or after sunset. It 
is produced when the sun is 18 0 below the 
horizon by the reflection of the sun’s light from 
the higher regions of the atmosphere. I11 the 
tropics the duration of twilight is shorter than in 
more northern latitudes. 

Tym'panum. [Gk.] The drum of the ear ( q. v.) 

Type. [Gk. typtein , to strike.] A letter cast in 
metal in a mold or cut in wood for printing. In¬ 
cluding fancy types, some three or four hundred 
varieties of face are made. Besides ordinary 
Roman and Italic, the varieties most in use are 
Old English, Old Style, Clarendon, Antique, 
Black Letter, and Script. The principal sizes are— 
Ruby, Diamond,Pearl, Agate, Nonpareil, Minion, 
Brevier, Bourgeois, Longprimer, Small Pica, Pica, 
English, Greatprimer. Type-metal is an alloy of 
lead and antimony, sometimes with a little tin 
or nickel or copper. In type-formciing a punch 

or die is first 
made on the end 
of a bar of soft 
steel, and then 
hardened ; then 
a matrix is made 
in copper, with a 
mold or box in 
two parts for 
casting. 

Typewriter. A 

machine which is 
used to print 
Roman letters 
ill place of script 
writing—f o r all 
work usually 
done with a pen. There are many kinds, but 
most of them have key boards ; by depressing 
these types are pressed against the paper through 
an inked ribbon. 

Ty'phoon. A ferocious whirlwind or tornado, 
common in the China seas, and of irresistible 
violence. 



TYPEWRITER. 



Um'ber. [Fr., from L. umbra, shade.] A brown 
or reddish kind of earth, consisitng of clays mixed 
with oxides of iron and manganese. It is used 
in oil and water-color painting. 

Umbrel'la. [L. umbra, shade.] A shade or screen 
used as a protection from the rays of the sun or 
from rain. It is formed of strips of whalebone or 
steel fastened to a stick or hollow iron rod and 
covered with silk, cotton, or alpaca. Umbrella 
silk is made chiefly in Lyons and Crefeld.—The 
umbrella tree is an American magnolia with 

73 2 


white flowers and rose-colored fruit, the leaves 
being crowded 011 the top of the flowering branch 
in an umbrella-like circle. 

U'nivalve. A mollusc whose shell consists of only 
one piece, as distinguished from the bivalve, or 
double-shelled molluscs, like the oyster. The 
univalves are the most numerous of the molluscs, 
and differ very greatly in size, shape, and color! 
many of them being very graceful and beautiful. 
A familiar example is the land snail. 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


157 


LKpas. [Malay.] A poison, used to poison arrows, 
contained in the upas trees, a native of Java and 
Borneo. It was formerly supposed to have fatal 
effects, from its severe narcotic properties, to all 
animals which came under its shade. These 
stories are fabulous, but it exudes a gum resin 
which is very poisonous. It belongs to the 
bread-fruit gemis. 

LFranium. [From the planet Uranus, discovered 
about the same time.] A metal discovered in 
1789, as a constituent of several minerals. It 
is a very hard metal, resembling nickel and iron 
in appearance. Peroxide of uranium is used to 
color glass green or greenish-yellow, and a sub¬ 
oxide is employed in porcelain painting to pro¬ 
duce an intense black. The metal is rare and 
costly. 

IFranus. The planet next beyond Saturn, and 
supposed to be the outermost until the discovery 
of Neptune. Its distance from the sun is 1,771, 


000,000 miles ; its diameter 31,700 miles ; its year 
84 earthly years in length. 

U'ric Acid. A crystalline body present in the 
urine of man and of most mammals, and some¬ 
times called lithic acid, because of its presence in 
calculus. 

Ur / sa. [L-] The Bear—a name given to two 

groups of 
stars near 
the north 
polar star. 
The Ursa 
Minor, or 
Lesser 
Bear, con¬ 
tains t h e 
pole star. 

The Ursa Major, or Great Bear, consists of a group 
of seven bright stars, two of which— the pointers 
—point to the pole star. 



V 


Vaccination. [U. vacca, a cow.] Jcuuer in 1796 
noticed that persons who had much to do with 
cows, and who had caught from these animals a 
mild disease known as cow-pox, did not after¬ 
wards catch small-pox. The lymph by which the 
cow-pox is transmitted is a clear fluid obtained 
from a cow or a calf, or from the swelling on the 
arm of a vaccinated person. This lymph is intro¬ 
duced into the body by scratching the arm and 
then rubbing into the blood the lymph from 
little glass tul 3 es. 

Vac / uum. A space devoid of matter. The term is 
ordinarily applied to the results of the exhaustion 
of air from a chamber of glass or other substance. 
The vacuum produced by the air pump is far from 
perfect, and various means are in use to produce 
a more complete exhaustion. A very efficient 
one is the Sprengel pump, in which mercury 
flows down a long tube of narrow bore, and 
carries with it the air from a connected vessel. 
The best vacuum obtainable by the air pump is 
150 times the millionth of an atmosphere ; while 
the Sprengel pump yields .005 of the millionth of 
an atmosphere. 

VaUance. [Fr. Valence , a towu near Lyons.] The 
hangings round a window or the lower part of a 
bed. 

Valve. [U. valva, the leaf of a folding door.] A 
kind of flap or lid in a pipe or a blood-vessel 
which allows a fluid or gas to flow only in one di¬ 
rection, as in the common pump. There are a flap- 
valve, puppet-valve, ball-valve and slide-valve. 
A safety-valve is held shut by a spring or weight, 
and opens automatically to allow steam, gas, or 
water to escape when the pressure becomes too 
great. The valves in the blood-vessels assist the 
flow of blood through the veins. 

VaniUla. A climbing plant, native of Mexico 
and tropical America, with long pod-like capsules 
and a delicate odor. From it is extracted an oil 
used in confectionery and perfumery. The pods 
are cut and ground, and mixed with weak alcohol. 


Var'nish. [Fr., from U. vitrum , glass.] A liquid 
laid on a surface to make it glossy. According 
to the solvents used, varnishes are divided into 
spirit, turpentine, and oil varnishes. The chief 
resins used in varnishes are copal, mastic, lac, 
benzoin, amber ; and these are mixed in alcohol, 
turpentine, ether, linseed and olive oils. 

Vas'eline. A yellowish, translucent, and odorless 
substance, obtained in the purifying of crude 
petroleum, used as an ointment and in the arts. 

Vault. [Fr., from U. volutus , rolled.] A roof or 
ceiling in the form of an arch, or an underground 
room with arched roof. A groined vault has the 
roof groined, or with different cylindrical sur¬ 
faces intersecting one another. 

Vegetable. [U.] A plant grown for food, as the 
cabbage, potato, turnip, etc. The vegetable 
kingdom is the primary division of living things, 
which includes all plants, and is divided into 
Phanerogamia , or plants having distinct flowers 
and seeds—sub-divided into exogens ( q.v .), end- 
ogens {q.v.), and gymuosperms; and Crypto- 
gamia , or plants without true flowers, and repro¬ 
duced by minute spores,—subdivided into ferns, 
mosses, and liverworts, and the algae, fungi, and 
lichens. 

Vegetation. The growth of plants. Vegetation 
occurs over the whole globe under the most 
opposite conditions. Plants flourish in the bed 
of the ocean as well as on laud ; under the ex¬ 
tremes of cold and heat in the polar and equa¬ 
torial regions; on the hardest rock and the soft 
alluvium of the plains ; amid the snow of the 
mountains, in boiling springs, in dark caverns 
or mines. Different circumstances produce dif¬ 
ferent species and genera. Absence of humidity, 
and extremes of temperature, are the conditions 
fatal to vegetable life. Trees and plants which 
occur in the plains dwindle with increased eleva¬ 
tion. Plants are capable of extended naturaliza¬ 
tion, but distinct vegetable regions occur in 
different zones or on different heights. 

733 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


158 


VeHum. [X. vitulus , a calf.] Calf-skin prepared 
for writing, and finer kinds of parchments. 

Veloc'ipede. A vehicle propelled by the feet of 
the rider. The common form is the two-wheeled 
bicycle, but tricycles and quadricycles are some¬ 
what in use. 

VeFvet. [Ital. velluto .] A pile formed of silk, 
or a mixture of silk and cotton, by short pieces 
of thread crowded together, or w T oven with a 
third set of threads so closely that they stand up 
and hide the warp and woof. The rows of loops 
are slit with a sharp knife. Cotton velvet is an 
imitation velvet made of cotton, and sometimes 
called velveteen. 

VeneerP [Fr.] A thin slice of w 7 ood of one kind 
glued on the surface of another to give it a good 
appearance. (See Wood.) 

Ve / nus. The second planet in order from the sun, 
from which it is 67,000,000 miles distant, and 
around which it revolves in nearly 225 days. Its 
diameter is about 7,760 miles, very near to that 
of the earth. The length of its day is not known. 

Veran'da. [Port.] A kind of covered gallery or 
balcony in front of a house. 

Verbe'na. [P.] A herbaceous plant with beauti¬ 
ful flowers. Essence of verbena is prepared from 
the lemon verbena, a plant with a lemon flavor. 

Ver / digris. [P., green of brass.] Acetate of 
copper ; poisonous green rust formed on brass or 
copper. It is used for making green paint and 
for dyeing wool black, in gilding and in calico 
printing. 

Vermicel'li. [Ital., from L. vermis , worm.] 
Dough of wheat flour forced through small pipes 
or holes into worm- like threads. Macaroni is 
made through larger tubes. 

VermiFion. [Fr., from L. vermis , worm.] A 
bright scarlet color got from the cochineal worm 
or insect. The vermilion of commerce is got 
by heating sulphur and mercury, and also by 
electricity. It is used in painting and in making 
sealing-wax. 

Ver'nier. A small scale made to slide along the 
edge of a larger one, 10 divisions of the smaller 
being equal to 9 or 11 of the larger. Invented 

by Pierre Ver¬ 
nier to measure 
tenth and hun¬ 
dredth parts. 

Vertebra. 
[P., a joint.] One 
of the twenty- 
six separate 
bones, called 
vertebrae, firmly 
united together 
to form the 
spin a 1 column 
or backbone (y.^.)inman and the higher animals. 

Vice. [Fr. vis, a screw.] An instrument with two 
strong jaws, closed by a screw, lever, or cam, 
for holding things firmly when being filed. In 
the blacksmith’s vice the front jaw reaches down 
further than in the machinist’s and is loosely 
fastened at the bottom. Carpenters use wooden 
vices. 


Vine. [Fr., from P. vinum.~\ A climbing plant 
bearing grapes from which wine is made. All 
the European varieties are supposed to belong to 
one species, Viiis vinifera. The chief districts 
are France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria, 
and Italy, and this species is also grown in vari¬ 
ous other parts of the world, including Cali¬ 
fornia. There are several different species in the 
United States. (See Grape , Wine.) —Also any 
climbing or trailing plant, as hop vine, etc. 

Vin'egar. [Fr.] A sour liquid, used as a relish 
for food, made from wine, cider, beer, malt, etc. 
The sourness is due to the presence of acetic acid, 
and of this there is from 3 to 5 per cent. 

VFolet. [Fr., from P. viola. ] A low creeping 
plant with a small flower, having a delicate 
fragrance. Sweet violet is the Viola odorata. 
Pansy is the Viola tricolor , and is also called 
heart’s-ease. 

VFolin. [Fr.] A musical instrument with four 
strings, played with a bow. Its tones are bril¬ 
liant and of great power and variety, and in the 
orchestra it is the leading and most important 
instrument.— Viola , a violin a fifth lower in 
compass than the ordinary violin.— Violoncello 
[Ital.], a large bass violin with four strings, an 
octave lower than the viola. 

VFper. [Fr., from P. vivus , living; and pareo, I 
beget.] A poisonous serpent; so named because 
it was the only serpent that was supposed to 
bring forth its young alive. The varieties include 
the common viper, the asp, the African horned 
viper, with a horny scale over each eye, Indian 
viper, and the red viper or copper-head, an animal 
like a rattlesnake without the rattles. 

VFtascope. A moving series of photographs, giv¬ 
ing the appearance of a living picture. Various 
names are given to the different forms of this, as 
biograph, mutascope, etc. 

VitTioI. [Fr., from P. vitrum, glass.] A glassy- 
looking substance consisting of sulphur and 
copper or zinc. Also the popular name for 
sulphuric acid ( q . v.). Blue vitriol is sulphate 
of copper; green vitriol is copperas, or ferrous 
sulphate; red vitriol is a native sulphate of 
cobalt; white vitriol is zinc dissolved in sul¬ 
phuric acid, and is a sulphate of zinc. 

Volcano. [Ital., from P. Vulcanus, god of fire.] 
A burning mountain, with an opening at the top 
called a crater, from which fire, steafn, lava, 
cinders, etc., are thrown up. 

VuFcanite. India-rubber (q. v.) } or similar sub¬ 
stance, hardened by heating with sulphur, and 
made into combs, buttons, etc. 

Vulture. [P.] An important family of birds of 
prey. The neck of the vulture is bare, but at the 
lower part there is a loose fold of skin covered 
with feathers under which it draws its head to 
keep it warm. Vultures feed upon carrion, and 
seldom attack living animals. The condor, king 
vulture, turkey buzzard, griffin, and lammergeir 
are all vultures. The condor is the largest vul¬ 
ture of the New World and is found in the Andes. 
The lammergeir is found in Europe, Asia and 
Africa. 



734 
















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


159 


w 


Wa / fer. [Fr. from Ger.] A thin cake of paste 
used in closing letters.—A thin cake or piece of 
ground bread used in the mass. This is usually 
unleavened, circular, and stamped with a crucifix 
or monogram. 

Wag / tail. A small song-bird belonging to the 
genus Motacilla , and so called because it jerks 
its tail up and down. The common water wag¬ 
tail is also called the pied wagtail. It is mixed 
white and black in color, and lives on the edges 
of ponds and streams. The Wood wagtail is 
found in Asia, and has a slender bill and short 
legs. 

Wain'scot. A boarding or lining of oak or other 
timber in panels. 

WalI=flower. A perennial plant with sweet¬ 
smelling flowers, growing in old walls and among 
ruins. It varies in color from yellow to orange 
and deep red. 

Wal / nut. [AS.] A tree of large size, with alter¬ 
nate, pinnate leaves, found chiefly in North 
America. The black walnut is a beautiful timber 
tree found in the United States, with a heart- 
wood of a warm brown color, a favorite wood for 
furniture making. The nut is round and oily, 
enclosed in a hard shell with a fibrous outer 
covering. The white walnut is a North American 
tree with long oily nuts, and hence called butter¬ 
nut. It also yields a valuable wood. There are 
some species found in Asia, whose wood is used 
in cabinet making, and the nut used for dessert 
and pickling. The nut yields walnut oil used 
in cooking. 

Wal'rus. [Du., from Scand., the whale-horse.] 



A large polar animal allied to the seal—also 
named Morse. Two of its upper teeth are pro¬ 
longed into huge tusks, which measure from one 
to two feet, and weigh nearly five pounds. It is 


one of the largest animals of the frozen regions. 
It sometimes measures eighteen feet in length, 
and weighs a ton. It is hunted for the blubber 
or fat that encases its flesh, which yields oil, and 
for its ivory tusks. Dike the seal, it is a very 
clumsy animal on land or ice, and it is always found 
near open water. All it wants is a comfortable 
spot to lie on, the sea being its refuge in times of 
danger. The walrus is caught by means of a 
barbed spear or harpoon, which is suddenly 
thrust into its body by the native hunter, who 
has crawled slowly and silently within striking 
distance. 

Warp. [AS.] The threads running the long way 
way of the loom and crossed by the woof. (See 
Spinning , Weft.) 

Wart. [AS.] A small, hard growth on the skin, 
generally on the hands.— Wart-hog is a large 
African wild hog with large fleshy tubercles or 
warts behind the tusks, and a second pair behind 
the eyes, and with a mane along its back. 

Wasp. [AS ] An insect somewhat like the bee> 
but its wings when at rest are laid over the body, 
and it has a deep division between the thorax 
and abdomen. Some live in colonies and some 
alone. When winter approaches all the wasps 
die except the females, which sleep through the 
cold. The nests of social wasps are built of 
paper, beautifully variegated and very durable. 
The young of social wasps feed on insects and 
larvae brought to them by the old wasps, who 
feed mainly on honey and pollen of flowers and 
sweet juices of fruits. Some wasps make their 
nests in holes in the ground, and others fasten 
them to walls or the branches of trees. The 
sting of the wasp is barbed like that of the bee. 
Dry seasons are favorable to them. Sugar in 
some fruits, as grapes and plums, most attacked 
by wasps, turns into alcohol in the process of 
rotting, and this makes wasps somnolent, but 
inclined to sting. The mud-wasp deposits a 
supply of stunned spiders with its egg in a cell 
for the larva to feed upon. Sand and wood wasps 
are solitary kinds. The females dig out cells in 
rotten wood with their jaws. Sand-wasps dig 
holes using the hairs on their legs. (See Hornet.) 

Watch. [AS.] A pocket timepiece. The train 
of wheels is the same as in a clock, but the main¬ 
spring and balance take the place of the weight 
and the pendulum in a clock. Watches arc 
made mostly in Switzerland, England, France, 
and the United States. American watches are 
all made by machinery, the parts being cut so as 
to fit in all watches of the same kind. Watches 
are distinguished by the kind of escapement used 
—as verge, lever, duplex lever, and chronometer 
watch ; also by the cases they are enclosed in— 
as open-faced, and hunters and half-hunters, 
which have closed and half-closed faces. Keyless 
watches, wound up by a knob on the stem, have 
taken the place of those wound up by a key. 

Wa / ter. [AS.] The fluid which falls in rain and 
forms rivers and seas. Tike air, water was formerly 

735 




























i6o 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 



considered a simple substance; but about a 
century ago the compound nature of water was 
discovered. Now it is a familiar fact that it is 
composed of two elements, oxygen and hydro¬ 
gen, in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen 
to one of oxygen. At temperatures below freez¬ 
ing point (32 0 F.) water exists in the solid form 
of ice ; between freezing point and boiling-point 
(212 0 F.) it takes the liquid form; and above 
boiling-point it exists in a gaseous state as vapor 
or steam. When the sun shines on the seas and 
rivers, the heat evaporates daily a quantity of 


A DROP OF WATER, MAGNIFIED. 

water. Rising up into the air, and carried along 
by the winds, this water-vapor is condensed, and 
falls as rain. Rain-water is in reality a kind of 
distilled water. It is not perfectly pure, for in 
falling it dissolves some of the carbonic acid gas 
out of the air, and also brings down impurities as 
soot. Water containing carbonic acid dissolves 
limestone and gains a condition called hardness, 
which may be removed by boiling or by adding 
lime-water. Pure water is clear, without taste, 
and colorless. Water is most commonly seen in 
the liquid state, but it is easily converted into a 
solid or into a gas. When liquid water iscooled, 
it contracts, or becomes less in size, until it 
reaches 30° ; if cooled still more, it begins slowly 
to expand ; but when it is as cold as 32 0 , it sud¬ 
denly expands, becoming about one-tenth larger, 
and forming the solid called ice. This is the 

736 


reason why w T ater-pipes often burst in frosty 
weather. The blood, which carries the food to 
all parts of the body, and removes the waste 
matter from every organ, is more than three 
parts water; more exactly, in 100 lbs. of blood 
there are 79 lbs. of water. Water forms about 
two-thirds of the total weight of the body. In 
100 lbs., lettuce contains 96 lbs.; cabbage, 92; 
apples, 83; fish, 78; potatoes, 75; lean meat, 
72 ; bread, 40; cheese, 34; rice, 15 ; butter, 10, 
parts of water. 

Watermelon. A fruit of a species of the genus 

cucumis , to which the cucum¬ 
ber also belongs, also the com¬ 
mon musk-melon or canta¬ 
loupe. The watermelon plant 
is a running vine that bears a 
very large, round fruit, with 
dark-green spotted rind, and 
pink or white flesh, sweet in 
taste, and very juicy or watery. 
This makes it much prized in 
warm countries. 

VVa / ter=gas. A kind of gas 
made by forcing steam over 
glowing coke. This yields a 
heat giving mixture of hydro¬ 
gen and carbon monoxide, 
which is charged with carbon 
and made suitable for illumi¬ 
nating purposes by passing 
through a volatile carbon. 
Waterspout. A whirling 
storm at sea, similar in appear¬ 
ance to a tornado on land. 
From a dense cloud descends a 
conical pillar, of funnel-shape, 
under which the sea is violently 
disturbed, rising in a cone. 
Sometimes the two cones meet, 
but they more frequently dis¬ 
perse before meeting. 
Waterwheel. A wheel turned 
by flowing or falling water and 
setting machinery in motion. 
There are three kinds, over¬ 
shot , undershot , and breast 
wheels, named from the level 
at which the water strikes their float boards. A 
turbine is a horizontal wheel with a vertical axis, 
driven by the weight and impulse of the water as 
it falls on the vanes around the axis. 

Wave. [AS.] A moving rirlge or swell on the 
surface of water. Waves in deep water move 
onward, but the water of which they arc com¬ 
posed is continually changing. Scoresby gave 
600 feet as the maximum length of sea waves. In 
1888 the Umbria was struck by a wave 50 feet 
high.—Heat, sound, and light are supposed to 
travel in waves. The wave theory of light re¬ 
gards its phenomena as due to transverse waves 
in an ethereal medium, their amplitude causing 
brightness of light, and their frequency causing 
its color. The colors of the spectrum are estimated 
to result from various rapidities of vibration, rang- 
i ng from 459 to 727 millions of millions per second. 





















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


161 


Wax. [AS.] A thick sticky stuff of a yellowish 
color made by bees (q. v.) to form cells for 
honey, and used iu making sealing-wax (q. v.), 
in modeling and in making wax-cloth or floor¬ 
cloth. Mineral wax is a substance resembling 
wax, found in connection with deposits of rock- 
salt and coal, and is also called ozocerite. Chinese 
wax is secreted by the wax-insect used in candles 
and medicine. Wax-palm is a tree found in the 
Andes. Its stem is covered with a secretion con¬ 
sisting of resin and wax, which when melted 
with fat makes excellent candles. Wax-bill is 
an Asiatic and African finch-like bird with a beak 
red like sealing-wax. 

Wea / sel. [AS.] A small flesh-eating animal 
with red and white soft silky fur. Its body is 
about seven inches long, its legs are short, and it 
has five claws on each foot. Its head is round, 
its muzzle sharp, its ears small and pointed, its 
jaws powerful, and it has whiskers like those of a 
cat. Its sense of smell is keen, its sight good, its 
hearing quick, and it glides like a snake, or runs 
swiftly, and jumps or climbs walls and trees with 
great ease. It is seldom seen during the day, 
but prowls at night in search of food. It feeds 
on rabbits, moles, mice, frogs, and birds. It is 
fond of blood, and likes to suck eggs in the 
poultry-yard, making a small hole in the end of 
the shell. Farmers favor weasels because they 
kill many vermin. In attacking their prey, they 
generally seize the animal by the back of the 
neck and drive their teeth into the brain. The 
weasel makes a nest of dry grass and leaves in a 
tree or ditch. 

Weath'er. The state of the air at any time as re¬ 
gards heat, moisture, wind, rain, clouds, and 
electricity. The pressure of the atmosphere is an 
important factor in bringing about atmospheric 
changes, because air always flows from a re¬ 
gion of high pressure to one of low pressure. The 
pressure of the atmosphere at any place is ob¬ 
tained from the readings of the barometer; but 
the direction and force of the wind depend upon 
the relative distribution of pressure at a given 
time over a large extent of country, and not upon 
the actual reading of the barometer at the particu¬ 
lar place. Simultaneous observations are made 
at as many different stations as possible within 
the given area, and are communicated to a cen¬ 
tral station, where the readings are compared 
and the distribution mapped out. The direction 
of the wind can then be inferred from the fact 
that it blows from where the pressure is high to 
where it is low. The place where for the time 
being the pressure is lowest is said to be the seat 
of a barometric depression, and the heaviest fall 
of rain generally takes place in the neighborhood 
of such a depression. In the Weather Bureau of 
the United States, 83 per cent, of the forecasts 
given twenty-four hours previously have proved 
correct. 

Weav / er=bird. A bird like a finch or sparrow, 
found in Asia and Africa, with hanging nest com¬ 
posed of interlaced grass. Some make their 
nests in the shape of a retort, with the opening 
at the bottom of the tube. 

47 


Wedge. [AS.] A piece of wood or metal, thick 
at one end and thin at the other, for splitting or 
fastening. The wedge is one of the six mechani¬ 
cal powers. 

Weed. [AS.] Wild plants in cultivated ground. 
Weeds injure crops in several ways. They absorb 
some of the plant-food which has been prepared 
for the crop, and they keep air and sunlight 
from the cultivated plants, which look sick and 
weakly in consequence. The hoe is an instru¬ 
ment much used for destroying weeds. On a 
good farm, land is fairly clean , or free from 
weeds.— Sea-weed , any marine plant of the class 
Algae, or any plant growing in the sea. 

Weft. [VS.] The cross threads of a web carried 
by the shuttle from selvage to selvage, woven 
into the warp. 4 

Well. [AS.] A deposit of water reached by a 
hole sunk in the earth. The water in wells is of 
the same nature as that of springs. Many towns 
are supplied with water from deep wells which 
reach beds of sandstone, lying perhaps 500 or 
1,000 feet below the surface. The water of 
shallow wells in towns is almost certain to con¬ 
tain sewage, which has passed from cess-pools or 
leaky drains through the soil and gravel or sand 
until it has reached the well. (See Artesian 
Well.) 

Whale. [AS.] A large swimming animal. The 
whale is not a fish, for its young are born alive, 
and are suckled, instead of coming out of eggs as 
young fishes do. Seals have feet that are more 
fitted for moving through the water than for 
moving on land ; but whales cannot move on land 
at all, for they have no feet. Some kinds of 
whales are the largest animals in the world. 
Whales are sometimes found in large herds, or 
“schools” as they are called. They are killed 
for their oil by the harpoon (q. v.). When a 
harpoon has struck a whale, the rope fastened to 
its handle is quickly let out over the side of the 
boat, and the whale pulls it so swiftly that the 
men are obliged to pour water over it to prevent 
setting the wood on fire. When once a harpoon 
has pierced a whale, it can only be got out by 
cutting the flesh. A dying whale often struggles 
so fiercely that it is dangerous for a boat to be 
near it. The bomb-lance and gun now used in 
killing whales are safer and more expeditious. 
The sperm whale {q. v.) has very sharp teeth in 
its lower jaw, with which it can crush a boat. 
One monster actually destroyed nine boats. Its 
jaw is 16 feet long, 7 or 8 broad, and about 10 in 
height. The thrasher, a large and voracious 
shark with a long upper lobe on its tail, often 
beats or fights the whale. The Greenland whale, 
the rorqual, and one or two other kinds, have 
whalebone instead of teeth. The whalebone, of 
which there are 360 plates or pieces in one 
animal, is fastened to the upper jaw of the mouth, 
and hangs down. Fach piece is from 10 to 14 
feet in length, and is 11 inches broad at the root; 
and one whale yields one or two tons of whale¬ 
bone. The blubber or inner skin, which con¬ 
tains the oil, may be 16 inches thick, and a large 
whale may yield 275 barrels of oil. The throat 

737 






162 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


of the Greenland whale is so narrow that it can 
swallow only the very smallest animals, such as 
shrimps and small jelly-fish, which are caught as 
in a net by the brush-like fringes on the edges of 
the whalebone. The throats of the spermaceti 
and rorqual whales are much larger. The rorqual 
is the largest member of the Whale family. 
Some of them are 85 feet long. But they are so 
savage, and their oil and blubber so inferior, that 
whalers do not often attack them. The whale 
has no hair, but the blubber keeps the outer skin 
oiled, enables it to resist the water, keeps out the 
cold, and from its lightness causes the body of 
the animal to float easily. The whale moves by 
its tail, which is so strong that it enables the 
largest of these animals to leap right out of the 
water. It uses its fins, or fore limbs, to balance 
itself, and also to grasp its young, of which it is 
very fond. The whale cannot remain long under 
water, and must come up for air every little 
while. But the nostrils of the animal are placed 
on the top of its head, so that when it rises very 
’ittle of its body is seen. These nostrils are 
called blow-holes, and through them it spouts up 
spray as well as its own warm breath to a great 
height. The sperm whale has only one blow 
hole. When under water the animal can protect 
both nostrils and ears by a sort of round stopper 
of skin and muscle, which fits so closely that not 
a drop can get in. Whales, often in hundreds, feed 
on the outskirts of herring and other fish shoals. 
The dolphin and porpoise are smaller members 
of the Whale family. 

Wheat. [AS.] One of the cereal plants from 
whose seeds bread is made. After Indian-corn, 
it is the most important of American food plants, 
and is widely grown in the temperate regions of 
the remainder of the world. Rice replaces it in 
importance in the tropics and in China. Wheat 
is, on the whole, the hardiest of the cereals, 
though oats are grown in regions where there is 
not enough heat to ripen the wheat. It is also 
the most costly of the cereals, yielding less and 
exhausting the soil more. There are many varie¬ 
ties— autumn and spring , from the times of 
sowing; red and white , from the colors of 
the grains; bearded, having ears with awns; 
beardless , having none; and rivetts, with a 
coarse straw. An average crop is from 25 to 30 
bushels of wheat and 3,000 lbs. of straw from each 
acre. Silica and potash are especially needed by 
wheat, and so it grows well on stiff clays which 
contain much silica. Wheat has never been 
found growing wild in any part of the world. It 
was cultivated in Britain in the time of the 
Romans. It is now chiefly produced in North 
America, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, Hun¬ 
gary, and India. The United States is the great¬ 
est wheat producer, yielding in some years more 
than 600,000,000 bushels, while the yield of the 
whole world in 1899 was 2,725,000,000 bushels. 

Wheel. [AS.] A circular frame turning round 
on an axle. The radii are spokes which are 
fixed in the nave or hub, through which is in¬ 
serted the axle.—■ Wheel and axle, one of the six 
simple machines or mechanical powers, consist¬ 

738 


ing of a wheel fixed to an axle, used for raising 
weights by a rope. The principle of equilibrium 
is the same as in the lever, but continuous. The 
gain in power is in proportion to the size of the 
circumference of the wheel as compared with 
that of the axle. If the circumference of the 
wheel be ten times that of the axle, then one 
pound attached to the wheel will balance ten 
pounds applied to the axle. 

Whelk. [AS.] A shell-fish with a spiral shell, 
belonging to the genus Buccinum. It is common 
on the coasts of Europe and North America, and 
is used for food. 

Whey. [AS -1 The watery part of milk separated 
from the curd in making cheese. The greater 
part of the whey is water ; but in this water are 
dissolved the milk-sugar and the mineral matter 
of the milk; the mineral matter is chiefly phos¬ 
phate of lime. In 100 lbs. of cow’s milk there 
are 92 lbs. of whey, consisting of—water, 86 lbs. 1 , 
milk-sugar, 5 lbs.; mineral matter, 1 lb. 

Whippoor=will. A North American bird of the 
Goatsucker or Nightjar family. It takes its name 
from its loud and plaintive nocturnal cry. Some 
regard it as a bird of ill omen. 

Whirlpool. A body of water whirling in a circle, 
and drawing into its centre whatever enters its 
waters. Whirlpools are situated in channels 
similar in configuration and in tidal phenomena. 
Charybdis is in the Straits of Messina. Maelstrom 
is on the north-west coast of Norway. Corrie- 
vrekin is in Jura Sound, Scotland. The Niagara 
whirlpool is really a large eddy in which whirl¬ 
pools are constantly forming. 

Whiskey. [Celt, wisge, water.] Spirit distilled 
from grain, potatoes, etc. Scotch or malt whis¬ 
key has the malt dried over a peat fire ; Irish or 
grain whiskey is made from raw barley. 

Whist. [From hush .] A game of cards for four, 
in which each person holds thirteen cards, and 
when these are played out the cards are shuffled 
and again given out. In short whist five points 
make the game, and two games a rubber. 

White'bait. A small fish of the Herring kind, 
prized for food. It is supposed to be the fry of 
both herrings and sprats, the proportion of the 
latter being greater in winter, while the herrings 
are more numerous in the summer. Thames 
whitebait possibly find more suitable food there, 
and may be superior in condition and flavor. 

Whortleberry. [Cor. of myrtillusi\ A plant 
which grows abundantly in heaths and woods, 
and bears evergreen leaves, and a blue berry 
which may be eaten ; also the bilberry, and in 
America the huckleberry. The cowberry has red 
fruit. The cranberry is closely allied to the 
whortleberry. 

WilTow. [AS.] A tree whose branches are 
slender and easily bent, used for basket making 
and wicker-work. The Weeping willow is a very 
ornamental species of Chinese origin, and has 
long slender branches that hang down almost per¬ 
pendicularly. The Pollard willow is one with its 
trunk cut back to throw out fresh and numerous 
osiers. The White willow, the largest species 
known in Britain, and the crack willow, are used 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


in making charcoal. Willows occur in temperate 
and moist climates, but they have not been found 
in Australia or the South Sea islands. 

VVin / cey. A cloth made of linen and wool mixed. 
Also called linsey-woolsey. 

Winds. Currents of air having their origin in the 
different pressures which exist in various regions 
of the atmosphere. Since the sun is shining 
more powerfully upon the equatorial than upon 
the more northern regions of the globe, the 
heated and therefore rarefied air ascends, while 
a current of colder air flows in from the poles on 
both sides to take the place of the ascending air. 
The ascending column of air flows over from the 
equator towards both poles, so that the general 
atmospheric circulation consists of an under cur¬ 
rent from the north and south poles towards the 
equator, and of an upper current from the equa¬ 
tor towards both poles. This general circulation 
proceeds in spite of other circulations on a 
smaller scale or of a local character which may 
be going on at the same time. North-east and 
south-east trades occur in the northern and in the 
southern hemisphere. (See Weather and Trade 
Winds.) 

Wine. [AS., from L. vinum .] A drink made 
from the sweet juices of fruits, which are pressed 

mA WA l WW I (iuinintiiiiilifffTn? ? ut > allowed t o 

ferment, and then 

bottled. Grapes 
are chiefly used 
for wine-making. 
Sherry and port 
are made in Spain 
and Portugal . 
Claret is a light, 
rather acid kind 
of wine, made in 
France; from 
which country 
we also get cham¬ 
pagne ', a wine 
which contains 
much carbonic 
acid gas. The 
wines of Southern 





M 

3^1 




ANCIENT EGYPTIAN WINK PRESS. 


Europe excel in body and strength, but lack the 
aroma of Rhine wines. Large quantities ofwine are 
now produced in the United States, especially in 
California. On an average, ioo lbs. of wine con¬ 
tains from io lbs. to 15 lbs. of alcohol. When 
wine is heated in a closed vessel, the alcohol 
rises out of it as vapor. If the vapor be then 
made to pass through a tube surrounded by cold 
water, it will be condensed to brandy. 

Wing. [Scand.] The appendage of the body of a 
bird or insect, by means of which it flies. The 
framework of the bird’s wing is formed of a set 
of bones corresponding to those of the human 
arm and hand, but having only one perfect 
finger, corresponding to the index finger; and 
stretched over this framework is a thin covering 
of flesh and muscle from which grow the quills 
and smaller feathers, and these when spread out 
make up the broad wing. The upper surface is 
rounded, and the air can easily slide from its 


163 

edges as it mounts in the air. Bats are the only 
mammals which fly, and their wings are arms 
and fingers lengthened out, and supporting a 
skin spread out like the cover of an umbrella on 
its ribs. There are other mammals, like the 
flying squirrel, the flying lemur, etc., which 
have a partial power of flight. The wings of in¬ 
sects are thin, often transparent, membranes. 
Some insects use them for only a brief period of 
their lives ; the ants, after their marriage flight, 
cast off their wings and live without them after¬ 
wards. Some, as the flies, have two wings, but 
most insects have four. 

Witch. A woman supposed to have a compact 
with the devil or with evil spirits, and given the 
power to perform supernatural acts. A man with 
similar power is called a wizard. Supposed 
witches have been persecuted from the times of 
Moses downward until about a century ago, and 
great numbers of persons have been put to death 
on accusation of witchcraft. 

WirFtergreen. A common American plant, 
about 4 or 5 inches high, with small whitish 
flowers and red berries. It is also known as par¬ 
tridge-berry, checker-berry, mountain tea, and 
by other names. The plant has a pleasant aro¬ 
matic taste and odor, and yields the oil of winter- 
green, used as a stimulant, for flavoring syrups, 
and in perfumery. 

Wireless Telegraphy. A newly invented method 
of sending electric telegraph messages without 
the aid of wires. The best-known invention is 
that of Marconi, an Italian electrician, the mes¬ 
sage being sent by the use of a powerful current 
of high frequency, which passes through the 
ether or the earth and acts on a suitable receiv¬ 
ing instrument many miles distant. The dis¬ 
tance to which messages can be sent is annually 
increasing. 

Wolf. [AS.] A carnivorous animal of the Dog 
family. It is very cruel, fierce, and destructive, 
but is capable of great affection. In many re¬ 
spects it is like a neglected savage dog. It does 
not bark, but gives a hoarse howl; nor does it 
lap like the dog, but drinks by sucking. There are 
many kinds, varied in size, thickness of fur, and 
in color. The ordinary color is a yellowish gray, 
but there are also black, brown, and white wolves. 
They are found in Europe, Asia, and North 
America, but not in South America or Africa 
Wolves do not lie in ambush, but run down their 
prey in open chase, their favorite prey being the 
allied species of the domestic dog and the Arctic 
fox. The coyote or American prairie wolf and 
the Japanese wolf are smaller species than the 
ordinary wolf or Canis lupus. 

Wood. [AS.] The solid part of trees ; trees cut 
down and sawn into boards. The wood used in 
the construction of houses is chiefly obtained 
from pine and from fir trees, the wood of both 
being called pine-wood. When sawn into boards 
it is known as deal ; when split into thin narrow 
strips, it forms laths. The wood should be sea¬ 
soned or thoroughly dried by exposure to the air 
for one or two years after the tree has been cut 
down. For making furniture, hard woods, such 

739 





































164 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


as oak, maple, cedar, ebony, walnut, mahogany, 
and rosewood, are used. Xne two latter are often 
cut into very thin slices, called veneers , which 
are then glued on the surface of beech or some 
other cheap wood and made into furniture. Be¬ 
sides its importance in building and the manu¬ 
facture of furniture, wood is necessary as fuel, 
and is greatly used in countries covered with 
forests where coal is not easily obtained. The 
toughest wood is pig-nut hickory ; next, white 
oak and white ash. (See Lumbering .) 

Wood'bine. [AS.] A climbing plant with sweet¬ 
smelling flowers; the honeysuckle. 

Wood'chuck or Ground=hog. An American 
species of the Marmots, a genus of rodents. This 
animal, from 15 to 18 inches long, burrows in 
the earth, and often commits great havoc in 
fields of clover, of which it is very fond. The 
prairie-dog is allied to the marmots. 

Wood / cock. A bird allied to the snipe, frequent¬ 
ing woods, and considered as game. It is noc¬ 
turnal in its habits. The little woodcock is the 
snipe. 

Wood'pecker. A bird having a hard pointed bill 
for pecking holes in trees, and a long tongue for 
drawing out insects from holes or crevices. This 
tongue is armed near the end with sharp barbs, 
pointed backward like a fish-hook. The tongue 
is fastened to cartilages which extend up to 
behind the skull and over the forehead, and iu 
consequence of this it can be thrust out some 
distance beyond the beak. Apple and maple 
trees are sometimes pierced by the woodpecker’s 
holes in rings one above the other, just as 
farmers pierce the maple. The nest is lodged in 
a pear-shaped hole made iu a tree-trunk, much 
larger than the circular entrance at the top. 

Wood = pulp. A fibrous material prepared from 
wood by grinding or by chemical means, and 
used, soaked in water, for making printing and 
other paper, and for various small wares, such as 
plates, basins, and pails. It has been used as a 
filling for car-wheels, in making bricks and tiles, 
etc., and even for making an imitation silk 
thread. 

Wool. [AS.] The natural covering of certain 
animals, the best known of which is the sheep. 
The sheep is a tame or domestic animal, but iu 
certain countries, as Asia, North America, and in 
parts of Europe (Sardinia and Corsica), wild 
sheep still abound. The entire coat of wool 
growing on any one sheep is called its fleece. 
This fleece is usually cut off or shorn once a year. 
The countries producing most wool are England, 
Australia, Cape Colony, Saxony, Spain, United 
States, and Mexico. Wool is remarkable for its 
softness, and the wavy nature of the separate 
fibres. When the fibres are drawn through the 
fingers in one direction, they feel smooth ; but 
in the opposite direction they are rough, and 
seem to catch. The wool, being cut and care¬ 
fully prepared, is spun into yarn by a machine 
which twists the fibres together, so as to form 
them into a long thread ; the waviness of the 
fibres and the projecting scales help them to 
hold firmly together. The yarn is then woven 
740 


into cloth. Any piece of woolen stuff consists 
of two sets of threads—one set called the warp, 
running the long way of the piece ; and another 
set called the weft, running across, and inter¬ 
lacing with the warp. Eastly, the woolen cloth, 
as we may now call it, is dyed and pressed ; the 
nap is raised by a process called teaseling, and 
the material is then ready to be made into clothes. 
When wool is spread out in a thin layer, well 
moistened, and then beaten smartly with a rod, 
the fibres become matted together, and form a 
material called felt , of which hats, carpets, etc., 
are made. Wool is a bad conductor of heat, and 
so prevents its escape from the body. At the 
same time wool is a good absorber of moisture, 
soaking up the perspiration as soon as it comes 
out of the skin. Owing to the roughness of the 
fibres, woolen materials gently chafe or rub the 
skin, and so promote its healthy action. 

Worm. [AS. wyrm , a worm or snake.] Earth¬ 
worms are humble animals, yet they are valuable 
aids to the agriculturist. On making a section 
down through the earth for several feet, there 
will be found innumerable tunnels formed by 
worms. A naturalist considers that they average 
100,000 to the acre, and in especially rich ground 
in New Zealand it was estimated that there were 
348,840 in a single acre. This vast body of worms 
is continually at work boring this way and that, 
coming to the surface during the night and re¬ 
treating to greater depths during the day ; and 
their tunnels constitute a system of irrigation 
and ventilation. Rain, instead of running off, 
enters the holes, and so penetrates the earth, 
thus being held for a longer time. Air also finds 
its way below the surface. But this is a very 
small part of the work accomplished. Worms 
are continually swallowing the earth and deposit¬ 
ing it at the surface, and working it over and 
over. Darwin states that the vegetable mold 
thus transported in some places amounts to ten 
tons an acre. Worms not only carry all this 
material to the surface, but they drag vast quan¬ 
tities of leaves and other matter down that serve 
to enrich the soil and render it capable of pro¬ 
ducing larger crops. Some worms are a foot iu 
length. Their bodies are formed of a large num¬ 
ber of rings. On each ring there are a great 
many bristles. Grubs move forward by means of 

• their tiny feet, snakes by means of their scales, 
and worms by means of their bristles. Their 
bodies are very elastic. The worm pushes for¬ 
ward its head, the bristles in the front part of its 
body take hold of the ground, and the rest of the 
body is then pulled along. In addition to the 
earth-worms, the name worm is applied to a 
large variety of elongated water animals, very 
many of them dwelling in the ocean, also to 
numerous internal parasites, some of which 
dwell in the human body. (See Tape.) 

Worst'ed. [From Worsted or Worstead, a village 
in Norfolk.] Wool twisted into thread used for 
knitting stockings. Long yarn is made by draw- 
ing, gilling, and combing. Short wools are first 
carded and afterwards combed. Worsted for 
carpet-yarns or knitting-yarns is carded only. 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


165 


Wort. [AS.] A plant of the Cabbage kind ; also 
the sweet liquor obtained by steeping crushed 
grain in hot water, which ferments and forms 
beer ( q.v .). 

Wren.. [AS.] A small brown bird having active 
and lively habits. It has a domed nest needlessly 
large for the size ot the bird, and near an occu¬ 
pied nest are generally one or more nests unfin¬ 


ished. It is extensively found in Europe, and 
inhabits Palestine. The winter wren and house 
wren are common in North America. In Britain 
there are the wood wren and willow wren ; also 
the chiff-chaff, which, from its nest, is sometimes 
called “oven” bird. Wrens, like robin red¬ 
breasts, whistle all the year round, times of hard 
frost excepted. 



Yacht. [Du.] A swift, light boat fitted up for 
pleasure-sailing or for racing. Yacht-racing dates 
from the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
during which it was greatly developed. Im¬ 
portant international yacht races took place be¬ 
tween England and the United States, in nearly 
all of which the latter was victorious. 

Yak. [Tibetan.] A large ox, very sure-footed, 
found in the plains of Central Asia. It is like 
the long-horned Scottish cattle, but more strongly 
built. In color it is black, and it has long hair, 
especially at the hind quarters, where it touches 
the ground. The wild yak is found always just 
under the snow-line ; the tame yak is seldom em¬ 
ployed below 12,000 feet above sea-level. The 
tails of domestic yaks are employed in India as 
fly-flaps. 

Yam. A large plant, with roots somewhat like the 
potato, grown in warm countries. The clusters 
of flowers are separately small, but together are 
showy. Most yams contain an acrid matter 
which is lost in cooking. The true yam is some¬ 
times confused with the sweet potato, which is 
convolvulus. 

Yarn. [AS.] The fibre of cotton, flax, hemp, 
silk, or wool spun into threads. Throughout all 
the changes of modern yarn-spinning, the ro¬ 
tating spindle continues to be the chief imple¬ 
ment. 

Yawl. [Du.] A small ship's boat rowed with 
four or six oars. 

Year. [AS.] The time which the earth takes to 
go round the sun. The tropical year is the in¬ 
terval between two successive passages of the sun 
through the first point of Aries. Its mean length 
is 365 days 5 hrs. 48 min. 49.7 sec. Owing to the 
precession of the equinoxes it is shorter than the 
sidereal year , which is the interval which elapses 
between the time of the earth’s leaving a given 
point in its orbit and the time of its returning to 
it. It consists of 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.6 sec. 
The order of the seasons is determined by the 
tropical year. The year is accounted 365 days in 
length, except every fourth year, which is named 
leap year and has 366 days. As this would make 
the average year rather too long, the last year of 
the century is not leap year unless its unit num¬ 
ber can be divided by four. Thus 1900 was not 
leap year, but 2000 will be. 

Yeast. [AS.] The froth that rises on the top of 
liquors in the process of fermentation; or the 
substance used for raising dough to be baked into 
bread (q. v.). Although yeast looks like a liquid 
to the naked eye, yet under the microscope a 



drop of yeast is found to contain thousands of ex¬ 
tremely small rounded bodies, which are tiny 

plants of the Fun¬ 
gus kind. The 
yeast-plant feeds on 
part of the starch in 
the flour, and the 
result is that this 
starch is changed 
into grape-sugar. 
Ueaven is o n 1 y a 
little flour and water 
which has been left 
exposed to the air 
until some of the 

YEAST FUNGUS, MAGNIFIED 400 TIMES. “gporeS” OT 

“seeds” of the yeast-plant (which are always 
floating about in the air) have settled in it and 
begun to grow, which they do with wonderful 
rapidity. 

Yellow Bird. This bird is known as the American 
Gold-finch or Thistle-bird. It is generally dis¬ 
tributed over North America. The male is bright 
yellow, with black tail and wings marked with 
white and with black on top of the head ; the 
female is yellowish brown above and darker brown 
below. They are usually seen in flocks, feeding 
on the seeds of thistles, sunflowers and other 
plants. 

YeNoW'hammer. A British song-bird with yellow 
feathers. This bird breeds late, and continues to 
sing until late in the year. 

Yew. [AS.] An evergreen tree like the pine, 
used either in hedges or separately. Its wood is 
hard and close-grained, and its young branches, 
owing to their toughness, were formerly much 
used for bows. Old yews are common near 
churches. The leaves have poisonous properties. 

Yolk or Yelk. [AS.] The yellow part of an egg. 
It has a thin skin around it, and has in it a little 
jelly-like germ, from which the young bird 
develops. (See Egg.) 

Yuc'ca. [Span.] A kind of lily peculiar to North 
America. Some kinds have underground stems 
and dagger-like leaves; others have palm-like 
stems crowned with dense tufts of leaves. Thev 
yield coarse fibres used for ropes and cloth, and 
are grown as ornamental plants. The plant is 
popularly called “Adam’s Needle.” 

Yule. [AS.] The old English word for Christmas, 
still used in provincial parts of England. The 
bringing in of the Yule log , for burning on the 
Christmas hearths, was a festive ceremony. 

74 1 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


166 


z 


2e / bra. [Port.] A kind of wild ass, of the genus 
Equus , perhaps the most beautiful animal of 
this tribe. It is pale yellow or white in color, 



with black or brown stripes. It lives in large 
herds in the mountainous parts of Africa, and is 
very wild. Few zebras have ever been tamed. 

Ze / bu. [Fr.] A variety of the Ox family with 
short horns, long ears, and a large hump over 
the shoulders, found in India and the Asiatic 
islands, and along the east coast of Africa. Some 
are of large size and others as small as a sheep. 

Ze'nith. [Fr., from Arab.] The point in the 
celestial sphere which a person standing on the 
earth at any point sees directly overhead; 
directly opposite to the nadir. 

Zinc. A metal of a bluish-white color, having a 
crystalline structure. It is brittle at ordinary 


temperatures, but when heated it becomes malle¬ 
able, and does not lose this quality when cooled. 
If raised to a red heat in a closed vessel, it will 
boil and pass off in vapor, and when heated in 
the air it burns with a bright flame. When ex¬ 
posed to damp air, a thin coating of rust is formed, 
which prevents the further oxidation of the 
metal. Combined with copper, it forms the alloy 
brass, and it also forms an ingredient in German 
silver. In the metallic state it is used for roofing, 
for rain-pipes, for gutters, and as a coating for 
sheet-iron and iron wire. Iron covered with zinc 
in this way is known as galvanized iron. Zinc 
is also used in some electric batteries ; and as an 
oxide it is employed as a pigment. 

Zodiac. A broad belt running round the heavens 
parallel to the ecliptic, and extending about 8° 
on each side of it. It is the area within which 
the motions of the sun, moon, and the greater 
planets lie. The stars in the zodiac have been 
divided into twelve groups called constellations— 
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, 
Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, 
Pisces. These divisions do not now coincide 
with the constellations as formerly ; for by the 
precession of the equinoxes they have been 
moved back about 25 0 behind the constellations. 

Zodiacal Light. A remarkable luminous appear¬ 
ance in the sky, seen in the west after sunset, 
and in the east before sunrise, at certain seasons 
of the year. It is a triangle of light, of greatest 
intensity within the tropics, where its brilliancy 
sometimes rivals that of the Milky Way. It 
stretches through the sky nearly in the direction 
of the sun’s equator. It is only during the spring 
and autumn that in our latitudes it can attain 
sufficient height in the sky to be distinguishable. 


Arab, or Ar 
AS. . . . 
Braz. . . 
Celt. . . 
Chin. . . 
Cor. . . . 
Dan. . . 
Du. . . . 
Fr. ... 
G. . . . 
Gk. . . . 
Goth: . . 
H . . . . 
Heb. . . 
Hind. . . 
Icel. . . 
Ital. . . . 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


The following are the most common abbreviations used in this book : 


. Arabic. 

. Anglo Saxon. 

. Brazilian. 

. Celtic. 

. Chinese. 

. Corresponding. 
. Danish. 

. Dutch. 

. French. 

. German. 

. Greek. 

. Gothic. 

. Hayti. 

. Hebrezv. 

. Hindu. 

. Icelandic. 

. Italian. 


L. 

L. Lat. . . 
Malay . . , 

O. E. . . . 
O. F. . . . 
Pers. . . . 

PI. 

Port. . . . 

q- v . 

Sax . . . . 
Scand. . . , 
Sing. . . . 
Sp. or Span 
Swed. . . . 
Turk. . . 
W. Ind. . 


Latin. 

Low Latin. 
Malayan. 

Old English. 

Old French . 

Persian. 

Plural. 

Portuguese. 

which see. 

Saxon. 

Scandinavian. 

Singular. 

Spanish. 

Szvedish. 

Turkish. 

West Indies. 


742 






























































Nicholas^ 


William E of Glrmahv 


ofItalv 


0F SvVede.^ 


of Austria 


Alfonso HI of SpA 1 ^ 


THE GREAT MONARCHS OF EUROPE 






















































BOOK X 

BIOGRAPHY 

THE WORLD’S GREAT MEN AND WOMEN AND WHAT SHOULD BE 
REMEMBERED OF EACH—ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED—A BOOK OF 
UNTOLD VALUE FOR LEARNING THE RIGHT THING ABOUT THE RIGHT 
PERSON—A THOUSAND WORTHIES OF ALL TIMES AND ALL COUNTRIES. 

GREAT MEN AND GREAT WOMEN OF ALL TIMES 


743 




Famous Men and Women 

A DICTIONARY OF DISTINGUISHED PEOPLE OF THE WORLD- 
EMBRACING THEIR NATIONALITY, VOCATION, GREATEST 
ACHIEVEMENTS, AND DATES OF BIRTH AND DEATH. 


A bbott, J. S. C. American historian. Life of 
Napoleon Bonaparte; History of Russia. 
Born, 1805; died, 1877. 

Abbott, Emma. A noted American singer and 
prima donna. Mrs. E. J. Wetherell. Born, 1849 ; 
died, 1891. 

Abbott, Lyman. American clergyman and 
author ; succeeded Beecher as pastor of Plymouth 
Church; editor Outlook. Born, 1835. 

Adams, John. American President and diplo¬ 
matist, graduated at Harvard ; school-teacher and 
lawyer; defended British soldiers implicated in 
Boston Massacre, 1770 ; delegate to Continental 
Congress, 1774 ; commissioner to France, 1778 ; 
minister to Holland, 1781 ; one of the negotiators 
of treaty of peace with Great Britain, 1782 ; 
minister to Great Britain, 1785-88; Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, 1789-97 ; President, 1797-1801. Born, 1735 ; 
died, 1826. 

Adams, John Quincy (son of John). American 
President and diplomatist, graduated at Harvard ; 
minister to Holland, 1794; to Prussia, 1797; 
elected to U. S. Senate by Federalists, 1803 ; re¬ 
signed, 1808 ; minister to Russia, 1809 ; one of the 
negotiators of the treaty of peace with Great 
Britain, 1814; minister to England, 1816-17; 
Secretary of State, 1817-1825 ; President, 1825- 
29 ; M. C., 1830 till his death. Born, 1767 ; died, 
1848. 

Adams, Samuel. American Revolutionary patriot 
and statesman ; Governor of Massachusetts ; one 
of the foremost popular leaders of the Revolu¬ 
tion. Born, 1722 ; died, 1803. 

Addison, Joseph. English man of letters, poet, 
humorist, moralist, dramatist ; Under-Secretary 
of State, 1705 ; M. P., 1708. His poem The Cam¬ 
paign , on the battle of Blenheim, had a great 
success. Much of the Tatler (edited by Steele) 
and three-fourths of the Spectator are his. Born, 
1672 ; died, 1719. 

/Eschines. Athenian orator; rival of Demos¬ 
thenes, and supporter of Philip of Macedonia. 
Orations. Born, b. C. 389; died, 314. 
/Eschylus. Sublime Athenian tragic writer. 
Agamemnon the Persian. Born, b. c. 525 ; 
died, 456. 

/Esop. Greek fabulist of the 6th century B. c. 
Fables. 


Agassiz, Louis. Swiss naturalist and man of 
science, Professor at Harvard ; founder of the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, 
Mass. Researches on Fossil Fishes. Born, 1807; 
died, 1873. 

Agricola, Cnaeus Julius. Roman general; built 
line of fortresses across Scotland ; father-in-law 
of the historian Tacitus. Born, 37 ; died, 93. 

Agrippina. Mother of the Emperor Nero, in¬ 
famously cruel and sensual; put to death by Nero. 
Born, 15 ; died, 60. 

Aguinaldo, Emile. A Philippine soldier and 
statesman ; leader of the revolt against Spain and 
the war against the United States ; captured and 
took oath of allegiance to the United States in 
1901. Born, 1869. 

Alaric I. King of the Visigoths, captured Rome. 
Born, 350; died, 410. 

Albert, Prince Consort of England ; husband of 
Queen Victoria ; man of noble character. Born, 
1819 ; died, 1861. 

Alcibiades. Athenian statesman and commander. 
Led Athenian fleet; conquered at Cyzicus and 
Cynossema ; annexed Chalcedon and Byzantium. 
Handsome, talented, fickle, vain. Born, 450; 
died, 404. 

Alcott, Louisa M. American author. Little 
Women; An Old Fashioned Girl; Hospital 
Sketches. Born, 1833 ; died, 1888. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey. American novelist and 
poet. Prudence Palfrey; The Story of a Bad 
Boy. Born, 1836. 

Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia, con¬ 
queror. Aristotle was his tutor. He came to 
the throne in 336, razed Thebes, and was chosen 
by the Greeks commander of the forces against 
Persia ; invaded Asia Minor (334), beat Darius at 
the Granicus, and cut the Gordian knot; defeated 
Darius at Issus (333) ; captured Tyre (332), in¬ 
vaded Egypt and founded Alexandria; routed 
Darius at Arbela (331) ; took Babylon, Persepolis, 
Susa, and invaded India till his army refused to 
proceed farther; died at Babylon. Born, B. c. 
356 ; died, 323. 

Alexander VI. (Borgia.) Pope 1492-1503. In¬ 
famous for his crimes. Born, 1430 ; died, 1503. 

745 


3 







4 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Alexander I. Czar of Russia (1801-25) ; one of the 
chief opponents of Napoleon, reorganized Rus¬ 
sian army. Born, 1777 ; died, 1825. 

Alexander II. Czar of Russia (1855-81); liberator of 
the serfs. Assassinated. Born, 1818 ; died, 1881. 

Alexander III. Czar of Russia (1881-94.) Born, 
1845 i died, 1894. 

Alfieri. An Italian dramatist. Spent his youth 
in dissipation ; reformed and devoted himself to 
dramatic art. “ Cleopatra ” was his first success¬ 
ful drama. Tragedy was his forte. Buried at 
Florence. Born, 1749; died, 1803. 

A If red the Great. King of Wessex. Came to 
throne 871 ; lived in concealment to escape 
Danes ; routed Danes, 878 ; allowed them to settle 
in his kingdom ; repelled invasion of the North¬ 
men, 896 ; founded a navy ; established schools 
and a police system ; encouraged literature. 
Born, 849 ; died, 901. 

Allen, Ethan. American Revolutionary soldier ; 
captured Ticonderoga “ in the name of the great 
Jehovah and the Continental Congress.” Born, 
1737 ; died, 1789. 

Alva, Duke of. Noted Spanish general during 
reign of Charles V. and Philip ; Governor of the 
Row Countries ; noted for his merciless cruelty. 
Born, 1508 ; died, 1582. 

Ames, Fisher. American orator and statesman ; 
Federalist member of Congress. Speeches. Born, 
1758 ; died, 1808. 

Amurath 1 . Sultan of Turkey ; first of the Sul¬ 
tans to make European conquests. Born, 1319; 
died, 1389. 

Andersen, Hans Christian. Danish author. Fairy 
Tales for Children; The Improvisatore; The 
Poets' Bazaar. Born, 1805 ; died, 1875. 

Andre, Major John. English soldier in the Ameri¬ 
can Revolution, hanged as a spy. Born, 1731 ; 
died, 1780. 

Anne. Daughter of James II. Queen of England. 
Literature flourished in her reign. Born, 1664; 
died, 1714. 

Antiochus. King of Syria. ‘‘The Great;” in¬ 
vaded Greece ; defeated by the Romans. Born, 
b. c. 237 ; died, 187. 

Antoinette, Marie. Queen of Louis XVI. of 
France. Guillotined. Born, 1755 ; died, 1793. 

Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony). Roman orator 
and statesman ; triumvir with Octavianus and 
Lepidus. Lover of Cleopatra ; defeated at Ac- 
tium. Born, b. c. 83 ; died, 36. 

Appius Claudius. Roman patrician. Decemvir ; 
attempted to dishonor Virginia, daughter of Vir- 
ginius. Died, b. c. 449. 

Aquinas, Thomas. Scholastic Italian theologian. 
Author of Summa Theologia , to this day a 
standard authority in the Roman Catholic 
Church. His writings fill 17 folio volumes. 
While a member of the Council of Lyons, fell 
sick and died at that city. Born, 1226 ; died, 1274. 

Archimedes. Syracusan mathematician and en¬ 
gineer ; made many discoveries in hydrostatics 
and mechanics. On the Sphere and Cylinder. 
Born, b. c. 287 ; died, 212. 

Aristides. ‘‘The Just.” Athenian statesman. 
Rival of Themistocles. Died, B.C. 468. 

746 


Aristophanes. Greatest Greek comedy writer. 

The Knights. The Clouds. The Birds. Born, 
b. c. 444 ; died, 380. 

Aristotle. Greek philosopher. Father of scien¬ 
tific natural history, and of logic. Tutor of 
Alexander the Great; taught at Athens in the 
Lyceum ; left works on physics, metaphysics, 
ethics, dialectics, logic, mathematics, politics, 
economics. Born, b. C. 384 ; died, 322. 

Arius. A noted Catholic theologian, a presbyter 
of Alexandria in the 4th century. Founder of 
Arian sect. Born, 280 ; poisoned, 336. 

Arkwright, Sir Richard. Noted English inven¬ 
tor. Began life as a barber. Invented the spin¬ 
ning frame. Was mobbed because his machine 
threatened to interfere with labor. “ This man,” 
says Carlyle, “ gave to England the power of 
cotton.” Became very wealthy. Born, 1732 ; 
died, 1792. 

Arminius, James. Dutch theologian ; founder of 
Arminianism ; denied Calvinistic doctrines of 
grace and predestination. Born, 1560; died, 
1609. 

Arnold, Benedict. American traitor. Tried to 
surrender West Point to the British. Born, 
1740 ; died, 1801. 

Arnold, Edwin. English journalist and poet, 
editor of the London Telegraph. The Light of 
Asia; Light of the World. Born, 1832. 

Arnold, Matthew. English poet and critic. God 
and the Bible; Poems; Essays in Criticism. 
Born, 1822 ; died, 1888. 

Arnold, Thomas. English educator and historian. 
Master of Rugby School. History of Rome. 
Born, 1795 ; died, 1842. 

Arthur, Chester A. American President; born in 
Vermont and educated at Union College ; ad¬ 
mitted to the bar ; Quartermaster-General of New 
York during the Civil War ; Collector of the Port 
of New York, 1871-78; Vice-President, 1881; 
succeeded to Presidency on death of President 
Garfield, September, 1881. Born, 1830; died, 1886. 

Ascham, Roger. Tutor of Queen Elizabeth. The 
Schoolmaster; Toxophilus or the School of 
Shooting. Born, 1515; died, 1568. 

Astor, John Jacob. American millionaire ; founder 
of the present Astor family. Born, 1763 ; died, 
1848. 

Attila. ‘‘The Scourge of God.” King of the 
Huns. Invaded the Roman Empire. Died, 453. 

Audubon, John James. American naturalist. Birds 
of America. Born, 1782; died, 1831. 

Augustine, Saint. Bishop of Hippo in Africa. 
Theologian, De Civitate Dei. Professor of rhe¬ 
toric and philosophy at Milan, 384; was for a 
time immoral, but was converted about 386. 
Ordained priest 391. He wrote against the Pela¬ 
gians, the treatises On the Grace of Christ , and 
On Original Sin. Born, 354 ; died, 430. 

Augustus (Octavianus). First Roman Emperor. 
Conqueror at Actium, Patron of literature. Born, 
b. c. 65 ; died, a. d. 14. 

Aurelian. Roman Emperor. Conquered Zenobia 
and annexed her kingdom of Palmyra. Born, 
212 ; died, 275. 


\ 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5 


Ati s t en , Jjme. English novelist. Sense and Sen¬ 
sibility ; Pride and Prejudice; Emma. Born, 
1775 ; died, 1817. 

B ach, John Sebastian. German composer. The 
i\ativity. Produced both secular and sacred 
music in great variety. Born, 1685 ; died, 1750. 
Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Albans, Lord 
Verulam. English statesman and philosopher. 
Novum Organum ; Advancement of Learning. 
Counsel to Queen Elizabeth at 28 ; found guilty 
of corruption, 1621. Among his works are 
Essays; and On the Wisdom of the Ancients. 
His Novum Organum applies inductive method 
to study of science. Born, 1561 ; died, 1626. 
Baker, Sir Samuel White. Noted English trav¬ 
eler in Africa and India. Wrote five books of 
travels. Born, 1821 ; died, 1893. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. Spanish adventurer. 
Discoverer of the Pacific. Born, 1475 ; died, 1517. 

Baltimore, Lord George Calvert. English states¬ 
man. Founder of Maryland. City of Baltimore 
named for him. Born, 1580; died, 1632. 

Balzac, Honord de. French novelist. Comedie 
Humaine. Born, 1799 ; died, 1850. 

Bancroft, George. American diplomatist and his¬ 
torian. Minister to England, and to Germany ; 
Secretary of the Navy. History of United States. 
Born, 1800 ; died, 1891. 

Barneveldt, Jan van Olden. Dutch statesman, 
patriot, liberal leader. Beheaded. Born, 1549 ; 
died, 1619. 

Barnum, Phineas T. American showman. Born, 
1810; died, 1891. 

Baxter, Richard. English Dissenting minister, 
writer. The Saints ' 1 Rest. Born, 1615 ; died, 1691. 
Beauharnais, Alexander, Vicomte de. First hus¬ 
band of the Empress Josephine. Born, 1760 ; 
died, 1794. 

Becket, Thomas a. Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Murdered ; had controversy in defence of rights 
of the Church with Henry II. of England, whom 
he excommunicated. Born, 1117 ; died, 1170. 
Bede, “The Venerable.” Anglo-Saxon historian. 
Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. 
Born, 672 ; died, 735. 

Beecher, Lyman. American Congregational 
preacher, and theologian. Views on Theology. 
Born, 1775 ; died, 1836. 

Beecher, Henry Ward. American preacher, lect¬ 
urer, and orator, at Brooklyn, N. Y. Star 
Papers. Born, 1813 ; died, 1887. 

Beethoven, Louis von. German composer. Ninth 
Symphony. For a time organist to the Elector 
of Cologne ; settled in Vienna, where he produced 
(1802) his Sinfonia Eroica. In 1805 appeared 
his opera of Lenore. He composed many 
symphonies, cantatas, and overtures. Born, 
1770 ; died, 1827. 

Bell, A. G. American inventor. Inventor of the 
Bell telephone. Born, 1847. 

Bennett, James Gordon. American journalist. 
Proprietor of the N. Y. Herald. Born, 1795 ; 
died, 1872. 

Berlichingen, Goetz von (“The Iron-Handed”). 
German hero. Immortalized by Goethe. Slain 


in war of peasants against nobles. Born, 1480; 
died, 1562. 

Bernard, Saint. Abbot of Clairvaux. French 
ecclesiastic. Born at Dijon, in Burgundy. He 
was active in bringing about the crusade of 1146 ; 
canonized in 1174. Born, 1091 ; died, 1153. 

Bernhardt, Sarah. The most noted French actress 
of modern times, if, indeed, she may not be called 
the most famous actress of all time. She traveled 
over the countries of Europe and America a 
number of times, always rendering her plays in 
the French language, yet commanding higher 
prices than any other person on the stage, the 
popular prices for choice seats in 1900-1901 in 
New York and Philadelphia being $10 to $25. 
Born, 1844. 

Besant, Sir Walter. English novelist. Eminent 
chiefly for the healthy realistic type of his work. 
Champion of the cause of Authors versus Pub¬ 
lishers. Born, 1838; died, 1901. 

Bismarck, Otto von. German statesman ; 1847, 
member United Diet and leader of Conservatives ; 
ambassador to Russia, 1809; Prime Minister of 
Prussia, 1862 ; Chancellor of the German Empire. 
Born, 1813; died, 1898. 

Black, William. Scotch novelist; originally a 
journalist. A Daughter of Heth; Strange Ad¬ 
ventures of a Phaeton ; A Princess of Thule; 
Madcap Violet. Born, 1841 ; died, 1899. 

Black Hawk. Indian chief. Hero of the Black 
Hawk War. Born, 1768; died, 1838. 

Blackstone, Sir William. English judge, and law 
writer. Commentaries. Born, 1723 ; died, 1780. 

Blaine, James Gillespie. American Republican 
politician ; U. S. Senator from Maine ; Speaker, 
House Representatives ; Secretary of State. Born, 
1830; died, 1893. 

Blake, Robert. Great English admiral and sea 
king. Annihilated Spanish fleet In Santa Cruz 
Bay. Born, 1598 ; died, 1657. 

Bliicher, Gebliard L. von. Prussian field marshal; 
decided the battle of Waterloo by coming with 
his force in the evening. Born, 1742 ; died, 1819. 

Boleyn, Anne.' 2d Queen of Henry VIII. Be¬ 
headed. Born, 1507; died, 1536. 

Bolivar, Simon. Liberator of the Spanish South 
American colonies. Born, 1783 ; died, 1830. 

Bonaparte, Caroline M. A. Sister of Napoleon I. 
Wife of Murat. Born, 1782 ; died, 1839. 

Bonaparte, Jerome, born, 1784; died, i860. 
Joseph, born, 1766 ; died, 1844. Louis Napoleon, 
born, 1778; died, 1846. Brothers of Napoleon. 
Kings respectively of Westphalia, Spain, Holland. 

Bonaparte, Maria Letitia. Mother of Napoleon I. 
Born, 1750; died, 1836. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. Napoleon I. Emperor of 
France. Captain of Artillery, 1792 ; crushed in¬ 
surrection in Paris, 1795 ; married Josephine 
Beauharnais, and took command of the army of 
Italy, 1796 ; conquered Austria and the Pope, 
1797 ; made an expedition to Egypt, 1798 ; made 
First Consul, 1799 ; conquered at Marengo, 1800 ; 
made peace with England, 1802, and about this 
time produced his Civil Code. Became Em¬ 
peror, 1804 ; engaged in war with England, 
Russia, Sweden, Prussia ; married Marie Louise, 

747 




6 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


1810; made a disastrous campaign in Russia, 
1812; was beaten at Leipzig, 1813; retired to 
Elba, 1814 ; returned to France, and was con¬ 
quered at Waterloo, and sent to St. Helena, 1815. 
Born, 1769 ; died, 1821. 

Bonheur, Rosa. Celebrated French painter of 
animals. Born at Bordeaux. Brought up in 
poverty. Taught by her father. Best known 
works “The Horse Fair” and “Hay Harvest 
in Auvergne.” “ Ploughing with Oxen ” is her 
masterpiece. Born, 1822 ; died, 1900. 

Boniface VIII. Pope ; 1294-1303. Excommuni¬ 
cated Philip the Fair of France. Born, 1228 ; 
died, 1303.. 

Boone, Daniel. American explorer and hunter. 
Father of the present State of Kentucky. Born, 
1735 ; died, 1820. 

Booth, Edwin. American actor. Among his best 
parts are Richelieu, I ago, Hamlet , and Ber- 
buccio in the Fool's Revenge. Born, 1833 ; died, 
1893 - 

Booth, Junius Brutus. English tragedian. Great 
in Shakespearean parts, especially Richard III.; 
came to America. Father of Edwin and John 
Wilkes. Born, 1796 ; died, 1852. 

Booth, William. Great English evangelist. 
Founder and general of the Salvation Army. 
Born, 1839. 

Borgia, Caesar. Italian soldier and statesman. 
Just as a ruler in his own domain, but crafty and 
cruel personally. A patron of art and literature. 
Son of Pope AlexanderVI. Born, 1476; died, 1507. 

Boswell, James. Scotch biographer of Dr. John¬ 
son. Boswell's Life of Johnson. Born, 1740 ; 
died, 1795. 

Bovvdoin , James. American statesman. Governor 
of Massachusetts. Founder of Bowdoin College. 
Born, 1727 ; died, 1790. 

Braddock, Edward. British general in America. 
Defeated by Indians. Born, 1715 ; died, 1755. 

Breckenridge, John C. American politician. 
Vice-President (1857-1861). Confederate general. 
A Democratic candidate for President, i860. 
Born, 1821 ; died, 1875. 

Bright, John. English Radical, statesman, and 
orator. Opponent of Corn Daws ; member of 
Gladstone’s cabinet. Born, 1811 ; died, 1889. 

Bronte, Charlotte. “ Currer Bell.” English 
novelist; 1848, Jane Eyre; 1849, Shirley; 1852, 
Villette; 1854, married Rev. Arthur B. Nichols. 
Born, 1816; died, 1855. 

Brown, John. American abolitionist leader. 
Captured by Robert Dee, at Harper’s Ferry, tried 
and hanged as a conspirator. Born, 1800 ; died, 

' 1859. 

Browne, Charles F. “ Artemus Ward.” American 
humorous writer. Born, 1835 ; died, 1867. 

Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett. English 
poetess; wrote verses at ten ; The Drama of 
Exile; 1844, Poems; 1856, Aurora Leigh; 
married Robert Browning in 1846. Born, 1809 ; 
died, 1861. 

Browning, Robert. English poet. Among his 
works are Pippa Passes; The Blood on the 
’Scutcheon ; The Red-Cotton Night-Cap Country, 
and Idyls. Born, 1812 ; died, 1889. 


Brownlow, William G. American journalist and 
politician ; Governor of Tennessee ; U. S. Sena¬ 
tor. Born, 1805 ; died, 1877. 

Bruce, Robert. King of Scotland. Defeated Ed- 
. ward II. at Bannockburn, 1314. Born, 1274; 
died, 1329. 

Brummell, George B. “ Beau Brummell.” Eng¬ 
lish man of fashion. Born, 1778; died, 1840. 

Brutus, Ducius Junius. Roman patriot ; over¬ 
threw Tarquiu and established Republican gov¬ 
ernment at Rome. Flourished 6th century, b. C. 

Brutus, Marcus Junius. One of Caesar’s assassins. 
Defeated at Philippi. Committed suicide. Born, 
b. c. 85 ; died, 42. 

Bryan, William Jennings. American statesman, 
born in Salem, Illinois; entered Congress in 
1890 as an extreme Free Silver man ; was twice 
nominated for the Presidency in opposition to 
Mr. McKinley, but defeated in 1896 and again in 
1900. Born, i860. 

Bryant, William Cullen. American poet. Tha- 
natopsis. Born in Massachusetts; at 13 wrote 
The Embargo and The Spanish Revolution; 
published The Ages, 1821 ; became an editor of 
the New York Evening Post in 1826; Transla- 
tion of Homer, 1867. Born, 1794 ; died, 1878. 

Buchanan, James. American president ; born in 
Pennsylvania ; admitted to bar, 1812 ; M. C., 
1821-31 ; minister to Russia, 1832-4 ; U. S. Sena¬ 
tor, 1834-45 ; Secretary of State, 1845-9 5 minister 
to England, 1852-6 ; signed Ostend Manifesto, 
1854 ; President, 1857-61. Born, 1791 ; died. 1868. 

Bunyan, John. English author. Pilgrim's Prog¬ 
ress ; The Holy City; The Holy War. For 
several years led a dissipated, wandering life ; 
joined Anabaptists in 1654; became Baptist 
minister, 1655 ; in prison, 1660-72 ; there wrote 
part of Pilgrim's Progress (1678) ; after his 
release, was minister at Bedford. Born, 1628; 
died, 1688. 

Burr, Aaron. American lawyer and statesman; 
Vice President. Tried for (and acquitted) of 
treason. Killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. 
Born, 1756; died, 1836. 

Butler, Benjamin F. American lawyer, politician 
and general; member of Congress ; military gov¬ 
ernor of New Orleans. Born, 1818; died, 1892. 

Byron, George Gordon, Dord. English poet. 
Childe Harold, Don Juan; Cain; Manfred; 
Marino Faliero; The Two Foscari; Beppo; 
The Vision of Judgment; The Prisoner of 
Chi lion ; The Siege of Corinth; Mazeppa; Eng¬ 
lish Bards, and Scotch Reviewers ; Par isin a ; 
The Deformed Transformed. Born, 1788; died, 
1824. 

C aesar, Caius Julius. Roman general and states¬ 
man. Dictator. Quaestor, 58 b.c. ; aedile, 65 ; 
pontifex maximus, 64; consul, 59 (alliance with 
Pompey and Crassus called first triumvirate); 
was granted both the Gauls for 5 years ; con¬ 
quered many tribes, and invaded England; 
crossed Rubicon and entered Rome ; conquered 
Pompey at Pharsalia (48); subdued Spain and 
Africa ; made imperator ; assassinated by Brutus, 
Cassius, and others. Born, B. c. 99 ; died, 44. 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


7 


Cablr, George W. American novelist. Old 
('reule Days, The Grandissimes, John March, 
Southerner. Born, 1844. 

Caine, Thomas Henry Hall. English novelist. The 
Deemster, The Manxman, The Christian. Born, 

1853- 

Calhoun, John Caldwell. American statesman. 
Vice-President. Native, South Carolina ; elected 
to Congress, 1810 ; Secretary of War, 1817 ; Vice- 
President, 1829-32 ; resigned in latter year and 
entered Senate ; Secretary of State, 1844 ; re¬ 
entered Senate, 1845; “State’s Rights’’ leader; 
left, among other writings, a Treatise on the 
Nature of Government. Born, 1783 ; died, 1850 

Caligula. Emperor of Rome (37-41). Insanely 
cruel, sensual, impious. Built temple to him¬ 
self. Born, 12 ; died, 41. 

Calvert, Cecilius. Second Rord Baltimore ; was 
first proprietor of Maryland. Especially distin¬ 
guished as one of the pioneers of civil and re¬ 
ligious liberty. Born,—; died, 1676. 

Calvin, John. French theologian. The funda¬ 
mental doctrines of his theology were uncondi¬ 
tional reprobation and election. He published 
Commentaries on the Harmony of the Gospel. 
Born, 1509; died, 1564. 

Campbell, Alexander D. P. Born in Ireland. 
Founder of the religious sect known as Camp- 
bellites, but calling themselves “The Christian 
Church.” Founded Bethany College, Va. Born, 
1788 ; died, 1866. 

Camoens, Luis or Luiz. The greatest of Portu¬ 
guese poets. The Lusiad and other poems of rare 
merit. So neglected and died in such poverty 
that he has been called the glory and shame of 
Portugal. Born, 1517 ; died, 1579. 

Campbell, Thomas. Scotch poet. Son of a 
Glasgow merchant. Pleasures of Hope, Exile 
of Erin, Ye Mariners of England, LochieVs 
Warning. Born, 1777; died, 1844. 

Canning, George. English statesman and orator. 
Prime Minister; 1807, Secretary for foreign 

affairs; fought duel with Castlereagh ; premier, 
1827. Born, 1770 ; died, 1827. 

Canova, Antonio. Italian sculptor. Among his 
works are Venus and Adonis, The Graces, and 
a statue of Washington. Born, 1757 ; died, 
1822. 

Canute II. King of Denmark and conqueror of 
England in 1016. Governed his three kingdoms 
of Denmark, Norway and England with great 
firmness and prudence. Born, about 985 ; died, 
1036. 

Caprivi, George Leo Graf von. German states¬ 
man. In Prussian army 1849-1890. Succeeded 
Bismarck as chancellor and prime minister in 
1890. Born, 1831 ; died, 1899. 

Carleton, Will. American poet. Farm Ballads. 
Born 1845. 

Carlyle, Thomas. Scotch historian and essayist. 
Published Sartor Resartus, 1834; French Revo¬ 
lution, 1837; Chartism , 1839; Heroes and 
Hero Worship, 1840; Past and Present, 1843 J 
Latter Day Pamphlets; Oliver Cromwell's 
Letters and Speeches, 1845 ; Life of John Ster¬ 


ling, 1851; Life op Frederick the Great, 1858-64. 
Born, 1795 ; died, 1881. 

Carnegie, Andrew. American manufacturer and 
capitalist, of Scotch birth. Grew immensely 
wealthy in the iron and steel business. With¬ 
drew in 1901 with fortune of $250,000,000. Gave 
many million dollars to found libraries and 
schools. Triumphant Democracy. Born, 1835. 

Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi. President of 
France. Grandson of Lazare Carnot, prominent 
in the Revolution and Empire. In National 
Assembly, 1871 ; finance minister, 1881 and 1887 ; 
elected President in 1887 ; assassinated by an 
anarchist. Born, 1837 ; died, 1894. 

Castelar, Emilio. Spanish statesman and author. 
Active in the Cortes ; dictator in 1873 ; withdrew 
from political life 1893. Wrote historical and 
political works. Born, 1832. 

Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton). American Revo 
lutionary statesman. Signer of the Declaration 
of Independence. Very wealthy. Born, 1737 ; 
died, 1832. 

Cartwright, Edmund. English inventor. Parlia¬ 
ment voted him 10,000 pounds for inventing the 
power loom. Born, 1743 ; died, 1823. 

Cass, Lewis. American statesman and diplomatist. 
U. S. Senator from Michigan. Democratic can¬ 
didate for President, 1840; Secretary of State. • 
Born, 1782 ; died, 1866. 

Catherine of Aragon. Queen of Henry VIII. of 
England. Divorced. Born, i486 ; died, 1536. 

Catherine de Medici. Queen of Henry II. of 
France. Strenuous opponent of Protestantism 
and the Huguenots. Instigated the “Massacre 
of St. Bartholemew.” Born, 1519; died, 1589. 

Catherine I. Wife of Peter the Great. Empress 
of Russia ; succeeded to government on his 
death. Born, 1682 ; died, 1727. 

Catherine 11. Empress of Russia; often called 
“ The Great.” Born, 1729 ; died, 1796. 

Cato, Marcus Portius. Opponent of Caesar ; famed 
for probity. Committed suicide. Born, b. c. 
95 ; died, 46. 

Cavour, Camillo B. Count. Famous Italian states¬ 
man. First Prime Minister to the Kingdom of 
Italy. Born, 1810; died, 1861. 

Caxton, William. English scholar and merchant. 
Distinguished for introducing printing into Eng¬ 
land. Born, 1412 ; died, 1492. 

Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh. Lord Treasurer of 
England, under Elizabeth. Born, 1520; died, 
159 ^ 

Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel. Spanish novelist 
and satirist. Don Quixote. Born, 1547 ; died, 
1616. 

Chalmers, Thomas. Scotch preacher and theolo¬ 
gian. Founder of the “ Free Church ” in Scot¬ 
land. Astronomy in its Connection with Reli¬ 
gion. Born, 1780 ; died 1847. 

Chamberlain, Joseph. English Radical statesman ; 
President of the Board of Trade ; Colonial Secre¬ 
tary during the Boer War. Born, 1836. 

Chariibers, Robert. Scottish editor, author, and 
publisher. With his brother, William, editor of 
Chambers' Journal, Chambers' Encyclopedia, 
Chambers' Book of Days. Born, 1802 ; died, 1872. 

749 




8 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Chambers, William. Brother, partner, and col¬ 
laborator with above. Born, 1800 ; died, 1885. 

Charming;, William Ellery. American Unitarian 
theologian and reformer ; opponent of slavery. 
Self-Culture; The Elevation of the Laboring 
Classes; Evidences of Christianity. Born, 
1780; died, 1841. 

Charlemagne. King of France. Emperor of the 
West. Son of Pepin the Short; became master 
of the whole territory of the Franks in 771 ; 
crowned Emperor of the West, with the title of 
Caesar Augustus, by Pope Ueo III., 800. His 
empire extended from the Elbe to the Ebro, and 
from Calabria to Hungary. He was the founder 
of the Carloviugian line of kings. Born, 742 ; 
died, 814. 

Charles V. (I. of Spain). Emperor of Germany 
and King of Spain; summoned the Diet of 
Worms to put down Luther in 1521 ; opposed the 
Protestants, but made concession to them by the 
treaty of Passau 1552 ; abdicated 1552, and with¬ 
drew to the monastery of St. Yuste, Spain. 
Born, 1500 ; died, 1558. 

Charles XII. King of Sweden, 1697-1718. Soldier 
and conqueror. Peter the Great of Russia, 
Frederick IV. of Denmark, and Augustus of 
Poland made a league against him in 1700. He 
besieged Copenhagen, and forced Denmark to 
make peace ; beat the Russians, and in the next 
campaign invaded Poland, where he compelled 
Augustus to resign ; invaded Russia, and was de¬ 
feated (1709) at Pultowa ; found refuge in Turkey, 
from which he soon returned ; invading Norway, 
he was killed at the siege of Frederickshalle. 
Born, 1682 ; died, 1718. 

Charles the Bold. Duke of Burgundy. Warred 
with Rouis XI. of France and Rene of Lorraine; 
killed fighting the Swiss allies of the latter. 
Born, 1433; died, 1477._ 

Chase, Salmon P. American statesman and jurist. 
Secretary of the Treasury. Chief Justice of the 
U. S. Born, 1808 ; died, 1873. 

Chateaubriand, Francis A., Viscount of. French 
poet and prose writer. Genie du Christianisme. 
Atala. Born, 1768 ; died, 1848. 

Chatham, William Pitt, First Earl of. English 
statesman and orator. “ The Great Commoner ; ” 
entered Parliament, 1735 ; opposed Walpole’s 
ministry ; Premier, 175 7 ; opposed taxation of the 
American Colonies. Born, 1708; died, 1778. 

Chaucer, Geoffrey. English poet. The Canter¬ 
bury Tales; The Court of Love; Legend oj 
Good Women; Troilus and Cresseide. Born, 
1328 ; died, 1400. 

Cherubini, Maria L. C. Z. S. Italian musical 
composer. Among his works are Medee, Elisa , 
AH Baba , and, in sacred music, the Requiem . 
Born, 1760 ; died, 1842. 

Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope. English orator 
and wit. Noted for his exquisite manners, on 
which subject he was the oracle of his day. Born, 
1694; died, 1773. 

Child, Lydia Maria. American author and phil¬ 
anthropist. Editor “ National Anti-slavery Stand¬ 
ard.” Born, 1802; died, 1880. 

750 


Childs, George W. American publisher and phil¬ 
anthropist. Noted for his honesty and benefac¬ 
tions. Born, 1829; died, 1896. 

Choate, Rufus. American lawyer, orator, and 
statesman. Most eloquent advocate of his time ; 
U. vS. Senator from Massachusetts. Born, 1799; 
died, 1859. 

Chopin, Frederick. Polish composer and pianist. 
His works are perhaps the best of piano music. 
Born, 1810; died, 1849. 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Roman orator, states¬ 
man, and author. In his consulship suppressed 
the conspiracy of Catiline ; went in exile in 58 
B. C. but was recalled ; was a Pompeian, but en¬ 
joyed the favor of Caesar ; was slain by soldiers 
under orders from Antony. His work On Old 
Age is perhaps the best known of his writings. 
Born, b. c. 103 ; died, 46. 

Clay, Henry. American orator and statesman. 
Born in Virginia; Speaker of U. S. Congress. 
1811 ; signed treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; elected 
Speaker, 1815, and thrice re-elected ; Secretary of 
State, 1825 ; U. S. Senator, 1832-42 ; Whig candi¬ 
date for President, 1844 \ re-elected to Senate, 
1848. Born, 1777 ; died, 1852. 

Clemens, Samuel L. American humorist, who 
under the pen name of “ Mark Twain ” con¬ 
tributed the richest humor of the century ; The 
Innocents Abroad; Following the Equator . 
Born, 1835. 

Cleopatra. Queen of Egypt. Joint sovereign of 
Egypt with her brother Ptolemy ; was beautiful 
and accomplished, but voluptuous ; lived with 
Caesar at Rome (46-44) ; in 41, became the 
favorite of Mark Antony ; at the battle of Actium 
she fled; escaped Augustus by killing herself 
with an asp. Born, b. C. 69 ; died, 30. 

Cleveland, Grover. Twenty-second President of 
the United States. Born at Caldwell, New Jersey ; 
went to Buffalo, and was admitted to the bar in 
1859. In 1881 he was elected Mayor of Buffalo, 
and in 1882 became Governor of New York. He 
served two terms as President of the United 
States, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897, being defeated 
for the intervening term by Benjamin Harrison, 
the Republican candidate. Born, 1837. 

Clinton, DeWitt. American statesman. Governoi 
of New York ; U. S. Senator ; Federal candidate 
for President; promoter of the Erie Canal. Born, 
1769; died 1828. 

Cobden, Richard. English statesman and econo¬ 
mist. Leader of the Anti-Corn Law League. 
Born, 1804; died, 1865. 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. English poet and 
philosopher. The Ancient Mariner; with Wads¬ 
worth wrote Lyrical Ballads ; published Christa- 
bel; Biographia Literaria ; Aids to Reflection ; 
was a slave to opium. Born, 1772 ; died, 1834. 

Coligny, Gaspard de. French admiral. Huguenot 
leader ; killed in the massacre of St. Bartholo¬ 
mew. Born, 1517; died, 1572. 

Colt, Samuel. American inventor ; Colt’s revolver. 
Born, 1814; died, 1862. 

Columbus, Christopher. Discoverer of America. 
Born in Genoa ; expected by sailing westward to 
find India; left Palos (Aug. 3, 1492) with 3 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


9 


vessels ; discovered San Salvador Oct. 12 ; visited 
Cuba and Hayti ; 1493 discovered Porto Rico and 
Jamaica; 1498 continent at mouth of Orinoco ; 
I 5°2 Honduras; died in poverty and neglect. 
Born, 1436 ; died, 1506. 

Comte, Auguste. French philosopher. Founder 
of Positivism. Course of Positive Philosophy. 
Born,. 1798 ; died, 1857. 

Confucius, (Kung-futse). Chinese philosopher 
and theologian. Came forward as a religious 
teacher at 22. His philosophy related to the 
present life only ; had nothing to do with physics 
or metaphysics. His influence in the East has 
been enormous. Born, b. c. 551 ; died, 479. 

Conger, Edwin H. American diplomatist. Con¬ 
gress, 1885-1891 ; Minister to Brazil, 1891-1895; 
to China, 1S98. Rescued from “ Boxer ” siege 
in 1900 by allied forces. Born, 1843. 

Conkling, Roscoe. American Republican, lawyer, 
and statesman. U. S. Senator from New York. 
Born, 182S ; died, 1888. 

Constantine I. (“The Great”). Roman Em¬ 
peror (306-337). Removed the Capital of the 
Empire to Byzantium. Born, 272 ; died, 337. 

Cook, Captain James. English circumnavigator 
of'the globe, and discoverer. Killed by Hawaiians. 
Born, 1728; died, 1779. 

Cooper, Peter. American philanthrophist. 
Founder of Cooper Union. Born, 1791 ; died, 
1883. 

Cooper, James Fennimore. American novelist. 
Among his works are The Spy , The Pioneers , 
The Pilot , The Red Rover , The Last of the 
Mohicans , The Pathfinder , The Deer slayer . 
Born, 1789; died, 1851. 

Cope, Edward Drinker. American naturalist and 
comparative anatomist. One of the foremost 
palaeontologists of the world. Editor American 
Naturalist. Born, 1840; died, 1897. 

Copernicus, Nicholas. German astronomer. De¬ 
molished the Ptolemaic theory of the universe 
and demonstrated that the sun is the center of 
the universe in his great work The Revolution of 
the Celestial Orbs. Born, 1473; died, 1543. 

Corday, Charlotte de. Slayer of Marat. Born, 
1768; died, 1793. 

Corelli, Marie. English novelist. A step-daughter 
of Charles Mackay, the poet. Romance of ‘ Two 
Worlds , Bar abbas, The Sorrows of Satan. 
Born, 1864. 

Cornell, Ezra. American philanthrophist. Founder 
of Cornell University. Born, 1807 ; died 1874. 

Cortez, Hernando. Spanish conqueror of Mexico. 
Born, 1485 ; died, 1547. 

Cornwallis, Charles. Noted British general. Sur¬ 
rendered to George Washington at Yorktown, 
1781, thus practically closing the War for Inde¬ 
pendence. Born, 1738 ; died, 1805. 

Cowper, William. English poet. Published his 
great work, The Task , in 1785. His letters are 
among the best in the language. Born, 1731 ; 
died, 1800. 

Crane, Stephen. American author. 1 he Red 
Badge of Courage , and other stories. Also noted 
war correspondent in 1898. Born, 1871 ; died, 
1900. 


Crawford, F. Marion. American novelist. Nephew 
of Julia Ward Howe. Mr. Isaacs , Paul Patojff , 
etc. Born, 1854. 

Cranmer, Thomas. Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Reformer. Burnt as a Christian martyr. Born, 
1489; died, 1556. 

Crispi, Francesco. Italian statesman. A revolu¬ 
tionist with Garibaldi ; Prime Minister of Italy 
1887-90 and 1894. Born, 1819. 

Crockett, David. American pioneer and hunter, 
famous for his bravery and eccentricities. Served 
several years in Congress; joined the Texan 
patriots in 1836 and was massacred by Mexicans 
at the Alamo. Born 1786 ; died, 1836. 

Croesus. King of Lydia. Famous for his wealth. 
Born, b. c. 590 ; died, 546. 

Cromwell, Oliver. Lord Protector of England. 
Entered army as captain of cavalry, 1642 ; signed 
death warrant of Charles I., 1649; routed the 
Scotch at Dunbar, beat Charles at Worcester, 
1651 ; dissolved Parliament, 1653; was created 
Protector, 1654. Born, 1599 ; died, 1658. 

Cruikshank, George. English caricaturist. Comic 
Almanack. Born, 1792 ; died, 1878. 

Curtis, George William. American orator, author 
and journalist. Nile Notes; Potiphar Papers. 
Born 1824 ; died, 1892. 

Cushing, Caleb. American lawyer, diplomatist 
and statesman. Attorney-General of the United 
States ; Minister to China. The Treaty of Ge¬ 
neva. Born, 1800 ; died, 1879. 

Cushman, Charlotte S. American actress. Great 
as Meg Merrilies. Born, 1816; died, 1876. 

Cuvier, George C. L. D., Baron de. French natu¬ 
ralist. Animal Kingdom , Natural History of 
Fishes; was founder of the science of compara¬ 
tive anatomy. Born, 1769; died, 1832. 

Cyrus, The Great. Founder of the Persian Em¬ 
pire and greatest of Persian kings. Killed in 
battle 529 b. c. 

D allas, George M. American Democratic poli¬ 
tician. Vice-President, 1845-49. Born, 1792 ; 
died, 1864. 

Dalton, John. English natural philosopher. Pro¬ 
pounder of the atomic theory. New System of 
Chemical Philosophy. Born, 1766; died, 1844. 
Dana, Charles A. American journalist. Editor of 
the New York Sun. Born, 1819 ; died, 1898. 

Dana, Richard Henry. American poet and man 
of letters. The Buccaneer , The Dying Rover , 
The Idle Man. Born, 1787 ; died, 1879. 

Dana, Richard Henry. Son of the above. Ameri¬ 
can lawyer and author. Two Years Before the 
Mast. Editor of Wheaton''s International Law. 
Born, 1815 ; died, 1882. 

Daniel. One of the four greater Hebrew prophets. 
Taken prisoner by Nebuchadnezzor. Highly 
honored by Kings Darius and Cyrus. 

Dante degli Alighieri. Greatest Italian poet. The 
Divine Comedy. ' Passed much of his time in 
exile from Florence for political causes. Wrote 
The New Life (Vita Nuova ), the Convito , trea¬ 
tise on the Italian language, De Vulgari Elo- 
quio , and De Monarchia. Born, 1265 ; lied, 
1321. 



IO 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Dan ton, George J. French Revolutionist. Head 
of the “ Dantonists.” Minister of Justice. Guillo¬ 
tined. Born, 1759 ; died, 1794. 

Darius I. (Hystaspes). King of Persia, b. G., 521- 
485. Began the wars with the Greeks. His Satraps 
Datis and Artaphernes were defeated at Mara¬ 
thon. Born, b. c. --; died, 485. 

Darius III. (Codomannus). King of Persia, b. c. 
336-330. Defeated and dethroned by Alexander 
the Great. Born, b. c. 380 ; died, 330. 

Darwin, Charles R. English naturalist. Originator 
of the theory of evolution by natural selection. 
Origin of Species ; The Descent of Man ; The 
Fertilization of Orchids. Born, 1809; died, 
1882. 

David. King of Israel. Distinguished as general, 
statesman, poet and prophet. Rived 1090 to 1055 
b. c. 

Da Vinci, Reonardo. Italian painter, sculptor, 
engineer and universal genius. The Lord's Sup¬ 
per. Among his works are Madonna, Lisa del 
Giocondo and The Virgin on the Knees of St. 
Anne. Born, 1452 ; died, 1519. 

Davis, Jefferson. American statesman ; colonel in 
Mexican war, elected to U. S. Senate, 1847 ; 
Secretary of War, 1853-57 ; re-elected to Senate, 
1857 ’> President Southern Confederacy, 1861- 
65. Born, 1808 ; died, 1889. 

Davis, Rebecca Harding, and her son, Richard 
Harding. American novelists. The latter also 
a spirited war correspondent in Cuba, 1898, and 
South Africa, 1900. Born, first, 1831; second, 1864. 

Dawson, Sir J. William. Canadian geologist. An 
original investigator, writer, and teacher. Born, 
1820 ; died, 1899. 

Davy, Sir Humphrey. An English chemist of 
great eminence. President of the Royal Society ; 
author many valuable scientific works. Born, 
1778; died, 1829. 

Decatur, Stephen. American naval officer. Dis¬ 
tinguished himself in Tripoli, 1804, and in War 
of 1812 with England. Killed in duel. Born, 
1779; died, 1820. 

DeFoe, Daniel. English novelist. Produced his 
great work, Robinson Crusoe , in 1719; Moll 
Flanders , 1721 ; Colonelfack , 1721. Born, 1661; 
died, 1731. 

Demosthenes. Greatest Greek orator. Was an 
opponent of Philip of Macedon, against whom, 
between 352 and 340 b. c., he delivered his 11 
Phillipics. It being proposed to give him a 
crown, iEschines opposed ; this was the cause of 
the noblest speech erf Demosthenes, that 0 ?i the 
Crown. Born, b. c., 385 ; died, 322. 

Depew, Chauncey M. American railway director, 
politician, and humorous orator ; elected U. S. 
Senator in 1899. Born, 1534. 

DeQuincey, Thomas. English author. Contracted 
opium habit. Confessions of an Opium Eater. 
Born, 1785 ; died, 1859. 

Descartes, Ren6. French philosopher and meta¬ 
physician. Principles op Philosophy ; made many 
discoveries in algebra and geometry. Born, 1596 ; 
died, 1650. 

Dewey, George. Admiral American Navy; hero 
752 


of battle of Manila (1898); triumphant return to 
America in 1899. Born, 1837. 

Dickens, Charles. English novelist. Published 
Sketches by Boz , 1836 ; Pickwick Papers, Oliver 
Twist, Nicholas Nickel by, The Old Curiosity 
Shop , etc. Born, 1812 ; died, 1870. 

Diogenes. Greek cynic philosopher. Surly and 
independent inhabitant of a tub. Born, b. c., 
-; died, 323. 

Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beaconsfield. English 
statesman and novelist. Premier (1874-1880). 
Coningsby, Vivian Grey, Henrietta Temple, En- 
dymion, Lothair. Born, 1805 ; died, 1881. 

Donnelly, Ignatius. American author and politi¬ 
cian. Nominated for Vice-President People’s 
Party ticket, 1900. The Great Crytogram, 
Ccesars Column , etc. Born, 1831 ; died, 1901. 

Dore, Gustave. French painter and illustrator. 
Illustrated Dante’s Inferno, Don Quixote, Para¬ 
dise Lost, Idylls of the King, etc. Painted 
Francesca de Rimini, Christ Leaving Prceto- 
rium , etc. Born, 1832 ; died, 1883. 

. Douglas, Stephen A. American Democratic poli¬ 
tician. Senator from Illinois. The Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill. Born, 1813 ; died, 1861. 

Draco. Athenian legislator. Noted for the severity 
of his laws. Born, B. C. 7th century. 

Drake, Sir Francis. English navigator and admi¬ 
ral. Preyed upon Spanish commerce ; burned 100 
Spanish vessels in Cadiz. Born, 1545 ; died, 1596. 

Dreyfus, Albert. A French army officer. Perse¬ 
cuted because of his Jewish blood, as the scape¬ 
goat for criminal officers. Sentenced to perpetual 
imprisonment, 1894, but secured new hearing 
and was pardoned, 1899. 

Drummond, Henry. British author and teacher. 
Natural Law in the Spiritual World, The As¬ 
cent op Man, The Greatest Thing in the World, 
etc. Born, 1851 ; died, 1897. 

Dryden, John. English poet and dramatist. Ap¬ 
pointed poet-laureate, 1670 ; produced Absalom 
and Achitophel, Ode on Alexander's Feast, 
Fables. Of his dramatic w T orks, All for Love is 
the best. Born, 1631 ; died, 1700. 

Dumas, Alexandre. French novelist. The Three 
Musketeers. Born, 1803 ; died, 1870. 

Dumas, Alexandre (Jr.). French novelist and 
dramatist. La Dame aux Camelias. Born, 1824. 

Du Maurier, George R. P. B. Born in Paris; sa¬ 
tirical illustrator for Punch; novelist. Peter 
Ibbetson, Trilby. Born, 1834 ; died, 1896. 

E ads, James Buchanan. American engineer. Built 
the St. Rouis bridge ; deepened the channel 
of the Mississippi. Born, 1820 ; died, 1887. 
Ebers, George Moritz. German Egyptologist and 
writer. An Egyptian Princess, Homo Sum, 
Cleopatra. Born, 1837; died, 1898. 

Eddy, Mary Baker Glover. American theologian. 
Founder of Christian Science. Author of Science 
and Health, etc. 

Edison, Thomas Alva. A celebrated American 
inventor. Born at Milan, Ohio ; started life as a 
newsboy ; made important inventions in teleg¬ 
raphy, electric lighting, etc. Also invented the 
phonograph. Born, 1847. 






FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Edward VII. King of England. Succeeded Queen 
Victoria in 1901. Born, 1841. 

Edwards, Jonathan. American metaphysician. 
Ablest defender of Calvinism. On the Freedom 
of the Will. Born, 1703; died, 1758. 

Eggleston, Edward. American novelist and his 
torian ; Minister of Methodist Church. The 
Hoosier Schoolmaster, and several historical 
works. Born, 1837. 

Eliot, John. The Apostle of the Indians. Ameri¬ 
can preacher and missionary to the Indians. 
Translated the Bible into Indian language. Born, 
1604; died, 1690. 

Elizabeth. Queen of England. Daughter of Henry 
VIII. Among the great events of her reign were 
the repulse of the Spanish Armada, and the exe¬ 
cution of Mary Queen of Scots. Born, 1523 ; 
died, 1603. 

Emin Pasha. An African explorer, of German 
birth; original name Edward Schnitzler. En¬ 
tered the Egyptian service ; governor of the 
equatorial province, 1878 ; cutoff from world by 
the Mahdi outbreak ; rescued by Henry M. Stan¬ 
ley in 1889; killed by Arabs in later travels. 
Born, 1840; died, 1892. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. American transcendental 
philosopher and poet. Was fora time a Unitarian 
minister in Boston; English Traits, The Con¬ 
duct of Life, Poems , Society and Solitude, Es¬ 
says. Born, 1803 ; died, 1882. 

Emmett, Robert. Irish patriot; Executed for 
treason. Born, 1780; died, 1803. 

Epictetus, Greek Stoic philosopher and moralist. 
Enchiridion. Flourished in 2d century. 

Epicurus. Greek philosopher. Founder of the 
Epicureans. Born, b. c. 342 ; died, 270. 

Erasmus, Desiderius. Noted Dutch scholar. One 
of the most profoundly learned men of modern 
times. In 1570 became professor of Divinity and 
Greek at Cambridge. Works published in ten 
folio volumes. Born, 1465 ; died, 1536. 

Eric the Red. Scandinavian navigator. Supposed 
to have discovered Greenland about 982, and his 
son, Eief Eric, is supposed to have visited New 
England about 1000. 

Ericsson, John. Swedish engineer and inventor. 
In 1836 patented the first successful screw pro¬ 
peller. Immigrated to America. In 1861 built 
the iron-clad Monitor, revolutionizing the con¬ 
struction of warships. Born, 1803 ; died, 1889. 

Euclid. Alexandrian mathematician. Elements 
of Geometry. Born b. c., 4th century. 

Eugene, Francis, Prince of Savoy. One of the 
greatest generals of his time ; co-operated with 
Marlborough at Blenheim, Oudenarde, and Mal- 
plaquet. Born, 1663 ; died, 1736. 

Euripides. Third in merit of the great Greek 
tragedy writers. Alcestis. Born, b. c. 480 ; died, 
406. 

Evans, Marian (George Eliot). English novelist. 
Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam Bede, The Mill 
on the Floss , Romola, Middlemarch, etc. Born, 
1820 ; died, 1880. 

Evarts, William M. American lawyer and states¬ 
man. Attorney-General of the United States; 
Secretary of State. Born, 1816 ; died, 1901. 

48 


11 

Everett, Edward. American orator, statesman 
and diplomatist. U. S. Senator; Minister to 
Great Britain. Orations and Speeches. Born, 
1794; died,1865. 

Ezekiel. One of the four greater Hebrew prophets. 
Contemporary and fellow-prisoner in Babylon 
with Daniel. Dived about 600 b. c. 
araday, Michael. English man of science. 
Founder of the science of magneto-electricity. 
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 
Born, 1791; died, 1867. 

Farragut, David Glascoe. American Admiral. En¬ 
tered navy 1812 ; commander, 1841 ; passed New 
Orleans forts and took New Orleans, 1862 ; made 
Rear Admiral same year ; attacked defenses at 
Mobile, 1864 ; Admiral, 1866. Born, 1801 ; died, 
1870. 

Farenheit, Gabriel D. German natural philoso¬ 
pher. Fahrenheit’s thermometer. Born, 1686; 
died, 1736. 

Fawkes, Guy. An English conspirator. Principal 
in the Gunpower Plot to blow up the House of 
Parliament. Executed 1606. 

Fenelon, Francois de Salignac. Noted French 
archbishop, author and orator. Among his works 
are Telemachus, Maxims of the Saints, Dia¬ 
logues on the Eloquence of the Pulpit, etc. Born, 
1651 ; died, 1715. 

Fessenden, William Pitt. American Republican 
Senator, and Secretary of the Treasury. Born, 
1806; died,1869. 

Field, Cyrus W. American capitalist. Raid the 
first Atlantic cable. Born, 1819; died, 1892. 

Fielding, Henry. English novelist. Tom Jones, 
Joseph Andrews, Jonathan Wild, Amelia. 
Born, 1707 ; died, 1754. 

Fillmore, Millard. American President, 1850-53. 
Born in New York ; learned fuller’s trade ; 
studied law; member of Congress, 1832-42 ; 
elected Vice-President, 1848; became President 
on death of Taylor. Born, 1800 ; died, 1874. 

Fish, Hamilton. American statesman. U. S. Con¬ 
gressman and Senator. Governor New York, 
1847 ; vSecretary of State under U. S. Grant, 1869 
to 1877. Born, 1808; died, 1895. 

Foote, Andrew Hull. American Rear-Admiral. 
Distinguished in Civil War. Born, 1806; died, 1863. 

Ford, Paul Leicester. American author. The 
Hon. Peter Sterling, Janice Meredith, and Biog¬ 
raphies of Washington and Franklin. Born, 
1865. 

Forrest, Edwin. American tragedian. Eminent as 
Metamora, the Gladiator, Virginias. Born, 
1S06; died, 1872. 

Fox, Charles Janies. English orator and states¬ 
man. Entered Parliament, 1768, as a Tory; 
opposed policy of Pitt. Born, 1749; died, 1806. 

Fox, George. English religionist. Founder of 
the Society of Friends. Born, 1624; died, 1690. 

Franklin, Benjamin. American statesman and 
philosopher. Born in Boston ; learned printer’s 
trade ; removed to Pennsylvania ; published Poor 
Richard's Almanac; discovered identity of 
lightning and electric fluid, 1752; deputy post¬ 
master-general of the colony ; agent of the Penns 
in England; delegate to Continental Congress; 

753 




12 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Minister to France, 1776-85 ; President of Penn¬ 
sylvania, 1785-87 ; member Constitutional Con¬ 
vention of 1787. Born, 1706; died, 1790. 

Franklin, Sirjohn. English Arctic explorer. Lost 
in Arctic regions. Born, 1786 ; died, 1847. 

Frederick II. (“The Great’’). King of Prussia. 
Came to the throne in 1740, and invaded Silesia, 
which Maria Theresa ceded to him in 1742. 
Russia, France, and Austria began Seven Years’ 
War against him and England (1756). He won a 
great victory at Prague (1757), but was defeated 
by Daun soon afterward ; the same year defeated 
the French at Rossbach, and the Austrians at 
Leuthen. Peace was made in 1763. At the par¬ 
tition of Poland (1772) he got Prussian Poland. 
Born, 1712 ; died, 1786. 

Freeman, Edward Augustus. English historian. 
Professor of Modern History at Oxford. The 
Norman Conquest, etc. Born, 1823 ; died, 1892. 

Fremont, John Charles. American explorer, poli¬ 
tician, and general. Republican candidate for 
President in 1856. Born, 1813 ; died, 1890. 

Frcebel, Frederick. German educator. Introducer 
of the “Kindergarten” system. Born, 1782; 
died, 1852. 

Froissart, Jean. French chronicler. Les Chroni- 
ques. Born, 1337 ; died, 1410. 

Froude, James A. English historian. History 
of Henry III., Short Studies on Great Subjects. 
Born, 1818 ; died, 1894. 

Fry, Elizabeth. English philanthropist. Devoted 
to prison reform. Born, 1780; died, 1845. 

Fulton, Robert. American inventor of the steam¬ 
boat. Built (1807) the steamer Clermont, which 
made regular trips between New York and Al¬ 
bany. Born, 1765 ; died, 1815. 

Funston, Frederick. American soldier. Served in 
the Cuban rebellion and in the Philippines. 
Famous for his daring; captured Aguinaldo in 
1901 ; rewarded with rank of brigadier-general. 
Born, 1865. 

G age, Lyman W. American financier. Secretary 
of Treasury under President McKinley. Born, 
1836. 

Galilei, Galileo. Italian astronomer. Professor of 
mathematics at Padua and Pisa. Discovered law 
by which the velocity of falling bodies is accele¬ 
rated. Constructed a telescope in 1619. Pub¬ 
lished Dialogues on the Ptolemaic and Coperni- 
can Systems. Born, 1564; died, 1642. 

Gall, Franz Joseph. German physician. Founder 
of the system of phrenology, and with Dr. Spurz- 
heim, his pupil, lectured on the subject through¬ 
-out Europe. Born, 1758; died, 1828. 

Galvani, Louis. Italian physicist. Discoverer of 
galvanism. Born, 1737 ; died, 1798. 

Gambetta, Leon. French radical orator and states¬ 
man. President of the Chamber of Deputies. 
Born, 1838 ; died, 1882. 

Garfield, James A. American President. Born in 
Ohio ; brigadier-general, 1862 ; major-general for 
services at Chickamauga; M. C., 1862-1881; 
elected to Senate, 1880; elected President, 1881 ; 
shot by Charles J. Guiteau, July 2, 1881 ; died 
September 19. Born, 1831 ; died, 1881. 

754 


Garland, Augustus H. American statesman. 
Member Confederate Congress, 1861-65 ; United 
States senator ; Governor of Arkansas, 1874 ; At¬ 
torney-General of the U. S. under Cleveland, 
1885. Born, 1832. 

Garibaldi, Giuseppe. Italian patriot and general. 
Liberator of Italy. Born, 1807; died, 1882. 

Garrick, David. English actor. Made his debut 
as Richard III. in 1741. Among his great parts 
were Lear, Macbeth, Romeo, Hamlet, Abel 
Drugger ; buried in Westminster Abbey. Born, 
1716; died, 1779 - 

Garrison, William Lloyd. American journalist 
and Abolitionist. Born at Newburyport, Mass.; 
at Boston, in 1831, he founded his celebrated 
Liberator. Born, 1804 ; died, 1879. 

Gounod, Charles Francois. French composer. 
Of his operas Faust is the best known. Born, 
1818 ; died, 1893. 

Genghis, Khan. Great Mongolian warrior and 
conqueror. Subjugated China and Persia. Born, 
1163 ; died, 1227. 

George III. King of England. Lost American 
colonies; insane latter part of his life. Born, 
1738 ; died, 1820. 

George, Henry. American economist. Published 
Progress and Poverty in 1879. Advocated single 
tax on land. Twice candidate for Mayor of New 
York; died in 1897 before the election. Born, 
1839 i died, 1897. 

Gibbon, Edward. English historian. Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire. Born, 1737 ; died, 
1794. 

Gladstone, William Ewart. Statesman, orator, 
and scholar. Born at Liverpool, son of a Liver¬ 
pool merchant; educated at Eton and Oxford; 
entered Parliament in 1832 ; in 1859, under Lord 
Palmerston, became Chancellor of the Exchequer; 
in 1865, he became leader of the Commons under 
Lord John Russell ; became Premier for the first 
time in 1869, holding office till 1875 ; in 1880, 
became Premier for the second time ; a third 
time in 1886, and a fourth time in 1892 ; failed 
from desertion in the Liberal ranks to carry his 
measure of Home Rule for Ireland; retired from 
office into private life in 1895 ; author of several 
works. Born, 1809 ; died, 1898. 

Godfrey of Bouillon. King of Jerusalem. Hero 
of the first Crusade. Born, 1058 ; died, 1100. 

Goethe, John Wolfgang von. German poet, 
dramatist, critic, novelist, man of science, states¬ 
man. Faust, Iphigenia in Tauris, Wilhelm 
Meister, Egmont, Sorrows of Werther, and 
many noble lyrical poems. In almost every de¬ 
partment of literature, first among the Germans. 
Born, 1749; died, 1832. 

Goldsmith, Oliver. Irish poet, novelist, and his¬ 
torian. Vicar of Wakefield, The Traveller, 
The Deserted Village. Born, 1728; died, 1774. 

Goodrich, Samuel G., “Peter Parley.” American 
writer. Peter Parley's Own Story. Born, 1793; 
died, i860. 

Gordon, Charles George. English soldier and 
administrator. Overthrew the Taiping rebellion 
in China; entered the service of Egypt and 
became Governor of the Soudan ; slain by the 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


troops of the Mahdi in Khartoum. Born, 1833 ; 
died, 1885. 

Gough, John B. American temperance orator. 
Born, 1817 ; died, 1886. 

Gracchus, Tiberius. Roman tribune and dema¬ 
gogue. Passed agrarian law ; murdered. Born, 

, b. c. 163 ; died, 133. 

Grant, Ulysses S. American general and Presi¬ 
dent. Born in Ohio ; graduated at West Point, 
1839 ; served in Mexican War ; brigadier-general 
1861 ; took Fort Donelson, 1862; Vicksburg, 
1863; lieutenant-general, 1864 ; President, 
1869-77. Born, 1822 ; died, 1885. 

Gray , Thomas. English poet. Professor of modern 
history at Cambridge. Pindaric Odes; Elegy 
Written in a Country Churchyard. Born, 1716; 
died, 1771. 

Greeley, Horace. American journalist and politi¬ 
cian. Founded the New York Tribune in 1841. 
Till his death he advocated temperance, anti¬ 
slavery, socialistic, and protectionist principles ; 
in 1872 he unsuccessfully opposed Grant for the 
Presidency. His works include The American 
Conflict , Recollections , Essays, etc. Born, 1811 ; 
died, 1872. 

Gregory I., “ The Great.” Pope. Converter of 
Britain. Born, 545 ; died, 604. 

Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). Greatest of the Popes. 
Elected Pope in 1073 ; the Emperor, Henry IV., 
of Germany, deposed him, and was excommuni¬ 
cated. After a humiliating penance at Canossa, 
Henry was pardoned, but the reconciliation was 
only temporary. Born, 1015 ; died, 1085. 

Grey, Lady Jane. English lady. Distinguished 
for rare talents. Edward VI. made her his suc- 
sessor as sovereign, and because of her acceptance 
she was imprisoned in the Tower and afterwards 
executed. Born, 1537 ; died, 1554. 

Grote, George. English historian. History of 
Greece. Born, 1794; died, 1871. 

Guizot, Francois P. G. French statesman and his¬ 
torian. Minister of Foreign Affairs. History of 
France. Born, 1787 ; died, 1874. 

Guillotine. Joseph Ignace. A French physician 
after whom the Guillotine was named ; behaving 
recommended it as a more humane method of 
capital punishment. Born, 1738; died, 1814. 

Gustavus II. (Adolphus). King of Sweden. Gen¬ 
eral. Began to reign in his seventeenth year ; 
soon afterward defeated the Czar and the King of 
Poland ; invited to become the head of the Prot¬ 
estant party in Germany, he entered Pomerania 
with 8,000 men, and took town after town ; de¬ 
feated (1631) Marshal Tilly at Leipzig, and the 
next year on the banks of the Lech, where Tilly 
was slain. The Emperor now called in the great 
Wallenstein to oppose Gustavus ; the two gen¬ 
erals met at Lutzen; Gustavus was mortally 
wounded, but the imperial army under Wallen¬ 
stein was repulsed. Born, 1594 > died, 1632. 

Gutenburg, Johannes or Henne, also called Gens- 
fleisch. Claimed by the Germans to have been the 
inventor of the art of printing with movable 
types ; he set up his first printing-press at Mainz 
about 1450. Born, 1400 ; died, 1468. 


n 

H asckel, Ernst Heinrich. German naturalist and 
evolutionist. Made valuable researches on 
the lower animals ; wrote popular works on 
science. Born, 1834. 

Hahnemann, Samuel C. F. German founder of 
homoeopathy. Proposed homoeopathy, 1796; 
published Organum of Rational Medicine, 1810. 
Born, 1755 ; died, 1843. 

Hale, Edward Everett. American author and Uni¬ 
tarian minister. The Man Without a Country , 
etc. Born, 1822. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene. American poet. Marco Boz- 
zaris. Born, 1790; died, 1867. 

Hamilton, Alexander. American statesman and 
financier. Born in Island of Nevis, West Indies. 
Aide-de-camp and secretary to Washington in 
Revolutionary War ; leading member of the Con¬ 
vention of 1787 ; principal author of the Feder¬ 
alist; Secretary of the Treasury, 1789-95 ; killed 
in a duel by Aaron Burr. Born, 1757 ; died, 1804. 
Hamilton, Sir William. Scotch metaphysician. 
Born, 1788; died, 1856. 

Hampton, Wade. American general and Senator. 
Governor South Carolina in 1876 ; U. S. Senator, 
1878. Born, 1818. 

Hancock, John. American Revolutionary states¬ 
man ; President of the Continental Congress. 
Born, 1737 ; died, 1793. 

Hancock, Winfield S. American general. Com¬ 
manded at Gettysburg; Democratic candidate 
for President in 1880. Born, 1824; died, 1886. 
Handel, George F. German composer. Conuposed 
sonatas at ten. His oratorio of Saul was pro¬ 
duced, 1740 ; his masterpiece, the Messiah,^ 41, 
Among his other works are Moses in Egypt. 
Samson , and fepthah. Born, 1684 5 died, 1739. 
Hannibal. Carthaginian general against Rome. 
Son of Hamilcar, who swore him to eternal 
enmity with the Romans ; captured Saguntum, 
219 b. c.; crossed the Alps, 218 ; destroyed Roman 
army at Cannae ; defeated by Scipio at Zama, 202; 
finally poisoned himself to escape falling into the 
hands of the Romans. Born b. c. 247 ; died, 183. 
Harris, Joel Chandler. An American writer ; born 
in Georgia. Author of Uncle Remus, and 
other folklore stories. Bora, 1848. 

Harrison, Benjamin. Twenty-third President of 
the United States. Was born at North Bend, 
Ohio ; graduated from Miami University in 1852 ; 
began the practice of law in Indianapolis. 
Served in the Union army during the Civil 
War; entered United States Senate in 1881; 
served one term as President of the United 
States, 1889-1893 ; defeated for second term. He 
was the grandson of William Henry Harrison, 
ninth President of the United States. Born, 1833 ; 
died, 1901. 

Harrison, William Henry. American President. 
General; Governor of Indiana, 1801-13 * defeated 
Indians at Tippecanoe ; elected to Congress, 1817; 
to the Senate, 1824 ; Minister to Columbia, 1828 ; 
Whig candidate for President, 1836 ; elected Pre¬ 
sident, 1840. Born, 1773; died, 1841. 

Harte, Francis Bret. American novelist and poet. 
The Heathen Chinee ; Gabriel Conroy ; Luck of 
Roaring Camp. Born, 1839. 


755 




T 4 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Harvard, John. Colonial divine. Benefactor of 
Harvard College, which was given his name. 
Born, 1608 ; died, 1688. 

Harvey, William. English physician. Discoverer 
of the circulation of the blood. Born, 1578 ; 
died, 1657. 

Hastings, Warren. British statesman and general; 
President of the Council of Bengal; conqueror 
of Hyder Aly ; impeached for cruelty, but ac¬ 
quitted. Born, 1733 ; died, 1818. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. American romance writ¬ 
er. Marble Fawn; The Scarlet Letter; The 
House of Seven Gables; The Blithdale Ro¬ 
mance; Mosses from an Old Manse. Born, 1804 ; 
died, 1864. 

Haydn, Francis Joseph. German composer. Be¬ 
tween the ages of nineteen and twenty-six, com¬ 
posed many sonatas, concertos, and symphonies ; 
produced 1798, his masterpiece, The Creation. 
Born,1732; died,1809. 

Hayes, Rutherford B. American President. Born 
in Ohio ; admitted to bar, 1845 ; brigadier-gene¬ 
ral in Civil War ; entered Congress at its close ; 
re-elected, 1866; Governor of Ohio, 1868-76; 
President United States, 1877-81. Born, 1822 ; 
died, 1893. 

Hayne, Robert T. American lawyer and Senator. 
Governor of South Carolina ; opponent of Web¬ 
ster in discussing the Constitution and State 
rights. Born, 1791 ; died, 1839. 

Hegel, George W. F. German philosopher. Pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy at Heidelberg and Berlin. 
He developed his system of philosophy in the 
Enclyclopcedia of Philosophical Science. Born, 
1770 ; died,1831. 

Heine, Heinrich. German lyric poet and satirist. 
Reisebilde; Lieder. Born, 1799; died, 1856. 

Helmholtz, Hermann von. German physicist. 
Famous for his researches in physiology, surgery, 
light, sound, etc. Born, 1821 ; died, 1894. 

Henry IV. “The Great.” (Henry of Navarre.) 
King of France. Won battle of Ivry ; issued 
Edict of Nantes. Born, 1553; died, 1610. 

Henry V. King of England. Conqueror at Agin- 
court. Born, 1388; died, 1422. 

Henry VIII. King of England. “ Defender of the 
Faith.” Suppressed the monasteries; founded 
the Church of England. Born, 1491 ; died, 1547. 

Henry, Patrick. American orator and revolution¬ 
ary patriot. “ Give me Eiberty, or give me 
Death.” Born, 1736; died, 1799. 

Herodotus. Greek historian. History. Born, b. c. 
484 ; died, 408. 

Herschel, Sir William. English astronomer. 
Discoverer of Uranus. Born, 1738; died, 1822. 

Herschel, Sir John F. W. English astronomer. 
Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural 
Philosophy. Born 1792 ; died, 1871. 

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. An American 
author and abolitionist. During the Civil War 
he commanded the drst regiment of freed slaves ; 
subsequently he resumed literary work. History 
of the United States; Army Life in a Black 
Regiment , etc. Born, 1823. 

Hirsch, Baron Maurice de. Jewish financier and 
philanthropist. Born, 1830 ; died, 1896. 

756 


Hobart, Garrett A. Vice President U. S. with 
McKinley, 1896. Born, 1844 ; died, 1899. 

Hogarth, William. English painter. The Rake's 
Progress. Born, 1697 ; died, 1764. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. American poet, physi¬ 
cian, and novelist. Elsie Vernier; The Auto¬ 
crat of the Breakfast Table; The Guardian 
Angel; Poems . Born, 1809; died, 1897. 

Homer. Greek epic poet. Iliad and Odyssey. 
The times of his birth and death are uncertain, 
and his existence is doubted by some, who main¬ 
tain that the Iliad and Odyssey are collections of 
songs by different authors. Born, b. C. 10th 
century. 

Hood, Thomas. English poet and humorist. Song 
of the Shirt, Whims and Oddities, Eugene 
Aram's Dream. Born, 1789; died, 1845. 

Hooker, Joseph. American general. Commander 
of the Army of the Potomac, 1863 ; defeated at 
Chancellorsville. Born, 1815 ; died, 1879. 

Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus). Latin poet and 
satirist. Odes, Epistles, Satires. Born, b. c. 
65 ; died, 8. 

Houston, Samuel. American general and states¬ 
man. Commander-in-chief of the Texan army ; 
captured Santa Anna ; Governor of Texas. Born, 
1793 ; died, 1863. 

Howard, John. English philanthropist and 
prison reformer. The State of the Prisons in 
England. Born, 1726 ; died, 1790. 

Howe, Elias. American inventor. Invented the 
sewing machine. Born, 1819 ; died, 1867. 

Howe, Julia Ward. American author and editor. 
Advocate of Woman’s Suffrage. Made famous 
by her Battle Hymn of the Republic. Born, 
1819. 

Howells, William Dean. American novelist. 
A Chance Acquaintance, A Foregone Conclu¬ 
sion, A Modern Instance , An Indian Summer, 
are among his more popular works. Born, 1837. 

Hugo, Victor. French poet, dramatist, and novelist. 
Les Miserables ; Notre Dame. Born, 1802; 
died, 1885. 

Humboldt, F. H Alexander von. German natural¬ 
ist. Cosmos, an Essay of a Physical Description 
of the Universe, etc. Born, 1769 ; died, 1859. 

Humbert I. King of Italy. Succeeded to the 
throne in 1878 ; assassinated by an anarchist in 
1900. Born, 1844 ; died, 1900. 

Hume, David. Scottish philosopher and historian. 
History of England, Enquiry into the Prin¬ 
ciples of Human Nature. Born, 1711 ; died, 
1776. 

Huss, John. Bohemian reformer. On the Church. 
Was burned at the stake. Born, 1376 ; died, 
I 4 I 5 - 

bsen, Henrik. Norwegian dramatist. Famous 
for his plays on sociological subjects. A Doll's 
House, The Master Builder, etc. Born, 1828. 

Ingelow, Jean. English poet and novelist. 1 ales 
of Orris, A Story of Doom and other Poems. 
Born, 1830; died, 1897. 

Innocent III. One of the greatest of the Popes. 
Elected Pope in 1198 ; put France under the ban, 
1199, because Philip Augustus repudiated his 
queen; Innocent compelled him to take her 





FA MO C/S MEN AND WOMEN 


i5 


back. He organized the fourth Crusade, which 
resulted in the capture of Constantinople ; in 
1214 he crushed the Albigensians. Born, 1161 ; 
died, 1216. 

Irving, Sir Henry (John Henry Brodribb). Eng¬ 
lish actor in Shakesperean and modern roles; 
knighted in 1895. Born, 1838. 

Irving, Washington. American author. Minister 
to Spain, 1842. History of New York , The Con¬ 
quest of Granada, Life of Washington , Colum¬ 
bus , The Sketch Book. Born, 1783; died, 1859. 
Isabella. “The Catholic” Queen of Castile. 
Patroness of Christopher Columbus. Born, 1451 ; 
died, 1504. 

Ito, Hirobumi, Marquis. Japanese statesman. 
Premier of Japan ; Admiral of Japanese fleet and 
gained great victory over China, Sept, 1895, off 
the Yalu River; Prime Minister again, 1900; 
resigned, 1901. Born, 1840. 

ackson, Andrew. American President and gen¬ 
eral. Born in North Carolina ; began to practice 
law at Nashville, Tenn., 1788 ; M. C., 1796; Sena¬ 
tor, 1797 ; Judge Tennessee Supreme Court, 
1798-1804; defeated Creek Indians, 1814; won 
battle of New Orleans, 1815 ; in Seminole War, 
1817-18 ; Senator, 1823 ; President, 1829-37. 
Born, 1767; died, 1845. 

Jackson, Thomas J. (“Stonewall.”) American 
Confederate general. Captured Harper’s Ferry 
taking 11,000 prisoners; defeated Banks; acci¬ 
dentally killed by his own soldiers. Born, 1826 ; 
died, 1863. 

James, Henry. American novelist. The Ameri¬ 
can, Daisy Miller , Portrait of a Lady , etc. 

Born, 1843. 

James I. of England and VI. of Scotland. Son of 
Mary Queen of Scots. Succeeded Elizabeth to 
the throne of England 1603. Translation of Bible 
made under his direction, and known as King 
James’ Version. Born, 1566; died, 1625. 

Jay, John. American jurist, diplomatist, and 
statesman. Negotiated treaty with England. 
Born, 1754 ; died, 1829. 

Jefferson, Joseph. American actor. Great as 
Rip Van Winkle. Born, 1829. 

Jefferson, Thomas. American statesman and Presi¬ 
dent. Born in Virginia, studied law; member 
Virginia House of Burgesses ; in Continental Con¬ 
gress, 1775 ; drew up Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence,’1776; Governor of Virginia, I 779 ~ 81 1 Resi¬ 
dent Minister at Paris, 1785-89 J Secretary ofState, 
1789-93 ; Vice-President, 1797— l8 oi ; President, 
1801-9. Born, 1743 ; died, 1826. 

Jeffrey, Francis, Ford. Scotch judge and critic. 
Editor of the Edinburgh Review. Born, 1773 ; 
died, 1850. 

Jeanne D’Arc (The Maid of Orleans). A peasant 
girl in Lorraine ; believing herself inspired by 
Heaven to raise the siege of Orleans and crown 
Charles at Rheims, she set out to the king in 
1429, was given a command, raised the siege of 
Orleans in one week, won the battles of Jargeau 
and Patay, and Charles was crowned at Klieims. 
Taken in a skirmish by the Burgundians, she was 
delivered to the English and burned as a sorce¬ 
ress. Born, 1411 ; died, 1431. 


John. King of England. Granter of Magna 
Charta. Born, 1166; died, 1216. 

John III. (John Sobieski.) King of Poland. Ex¬ 
pelled the Turks from Austria and Poland. Born, 
1629 ; died, 1696. 

Johnson, Andrew. American President. In Con¬ 
gress, 1843-53 ; Governor of Tennessee, 1853-7 ; 
U. S. Senator, 1857 ; Military Governor of Ten¬ 
nessee, 1862 ; elected Vice-President, 1864 ; Presi¬ 
dent on death of Lincoln, April 15, 1865 ; im¬ 
peached, but acquitted, 1868 ; subsequently re¬ 
elected to the Senate. Born, 1808 ; died, 1875. 

Johnson, Samuel. English poet, critic, and 
scholar. Born in Lichfield ; educated at Oxford ; 
published London , Life of Richard Savage, 
Vanity of Human Wishes, Dictionary, Rasselas, 
Lives of the Poets. Born, 1709 ; died, 1784. 

Johnston, Albert Sydney. American Confederate 
general. Attacked Grant at Shiloh, and was 
killed. Born, 1803 ; died, 1862. 

Johnston, Joseph E. American general. Served 
with distinction in Mexico. In 1861, joined Con¬ 
federate army, in which he distinguished him¬ 
self. Born, 1807 ; died, 1891. 

Jones, John Paul. American Revolutionary naval 
officer. Naval victories over British. Born, 1747; 
died, 1792. 

Jonson, Ben. English poet and dramatist, brick¬ 
layer and soldier. Every Man in his Humor, 
Volpone, The Alchemist, The Silent Woman, 
Sejanus\ Masques. Born, 1574; died, 1637. 

Josephine. Widow of Alexander de Beauharnais. 
Wife of Napoleon I.; Empress of France; di¬ 
vorced. Born, 1763 ; died, 1814. 

Josephus, Flavius. Jewish historian. History 
of the fews. Born, 35 ; died, 100. 

Joubert, Petrus Jacobus. A Boer soldier. Defeated 
the English in 1881 and Dr. Jameson in 1896; 
prominent in Boer-English war. Born, 1831 ; 
died, 1900. 

Julian. “ The Apostate.” Roman emperor. Re¬ 
stored Pagan worship. Born, 331 ; died, 363. 

Juvenal (Decimus JuniusJuvenalis). Latin satirist. 
Satires. Born, 40; died, 125. 

K ane, Elisha K. American Arctic explorer. 
Arctic Explorations. Born, 1820; died, 

i8 57 - ^ . . 

Kant, Immanuel. German philosopher. Critique 

of Pure Reason. In his Universal Natural 
History and Theory of the Universe he antici¬ 
pated the discovery of Uranus. Another of his 
important works is the Critique of Practical 
Reason. It was his aim to determine the laws 
and limits of human reason and of the human in¬ 
tellect in relation to the objects of human 
knowledge. Born, 1724 ; died, 1804. 

Kean, Edward. English actor. Among his greatest 
parts were Shy lock, Richard III., Othello , I ago. 
King Lear. Born, 1787 ; died, 1833. 

Keats, John. English poet. Born in London; 
apprenticed to a surgeon ; died at Rome. Endy- 
niion, Hyperion, The Eve of St. Agnes. Born, 
1795 ; died, 1821. 

Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord. Scotch physicist. 
Famous for his discoveries in electric and dynamic 

757 



i6 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


science, and researches on wave-motion and the 
ether. Created Lord Kelvin in 1892. Born, 1824. 

Kempis, Thomas a. German ascetic writer. Imi- 
tatio Christi. Born, 1380 ; died, 1471. 

Kepler, John. German astronomer. Discovered 
the mathematical laws of the solar system. Born, 
1571 ; died, 1630. 

Key, Francis Scott. American song-writer. Star- 
Spangled Banner. Born, 1799 ; died, 1843. 

Kingsley, Charles. English divine and novelist. 
Hypatia, WestwardHo, Hereward. Born, 1819 ; 
died, 1875. 

Kingsley, Henry. English novelist. Ravens hoe. 
Born, 1830; died, 1876. 

Kipling, Rudyard. Story-teller and poet. Born 
in Bombay, and educated in England. His Sol¬ 
diers Diree , and other stories, gained for him an 
immediate and wide reputation. As a poet, his 
most successful effort is his Barrack-Room Bal¬ 
lads. Born, 1865. 

Kitchener, Lord Horatio Herbert. English soldier. 
Hero of Soudan Campaign in 1898. Boer War 
1899 and 1900. Born, 1850. 

Knox, John. Scotch Reformer. Fierce anti-Catho- 
lic. Ihe First Blast of the Trumpet. Born, 
1505 ; died, 1572. 

Koch, Robert. German bacteriologist. Born at 
Klausthal, in Hanover ; famous for his researches 
in bacteriology ; discovered sundry bacilli, among 
others the cholera bacillus and the phthisis bacil¬ 
lus, and a specific against it. Born, 1843. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus. Polish patriot and general. 
Commander of the Polish insurgent army ; de¬ 
feated at Warsaw, which he bravely defended. 
Born, 1745 ; died, 1817. 

Kossuth, Louis. Hungarian orator and patriot. 
Leading spirit in the insurrection of 1848-49 ; 
effected many important reforms. Born, 1802 ; 
died, 1894. 

Kropotkine, Prince Peter. Russian Nihilist. 
Arrested in Russia and escaped ; imprisoned in 
France. Wrote Paroles d'un Revolte, In Rus¬ 
sian and French Prisons. Born, 1842. 

Kruger, Stephanus Johannes Paul. President of 
the South African Republic after 1883. Declared 
war against England in 1899. Went for aid to 
Europe in 1900. Born, 1825. 
a Fayette, Marie J. P. R. P. Gilbert Motier, Mar¬ 
quis de. Joined American army as major- 
general, 1777 ; commanded advance guard of 
Washington at Yorktown ; commander of French 
national guard, 1789 ; revisited America, 1824 ; 
took part in revolution of 1830. Born, 1757 ; 
died, 1834. 

Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de. French naturalist. 
Famous for his theory of animal evolution. Philo- 
sophie Zoologique. Born, 1744; died, 1829. 

Lamb, Charles. English author and humorist. 
Essays of Elia ; Essays on Tragedies of Shakes¬ 
peare, etc. Born, 1775 ; died, 1834. 

Landseer, Sir Edwin. English painter. The Old 
Shepherd's Chief Mourner. Born, 1802 ; died, 

i8 73 - 

Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis of. Great French 
mathematician and astronomer. Discovered the 
theory of Jupiter’s satellites and the causes of the 

75 S 


acceleration of the moon’s mean motion, and of 
the inequality of Jupiter and Saturn. His Ex¬ 
position of the System of the universe is a popu¬ 
lar form of his great work La Mecanique Celeste. 
He was one of the greatest mathematicians and 
astronomers. Born, 1749 ; died, 1827. 

Latimer, Hugh, Bishop of Worcester. English 
reformer. Burned. Born, 1480 ; died, 1555. 

Laurier, Sir Wilfred. Canadian Premier after 1896. 
The First French Canadian to attain the honor. 
Elected in 1871 as a Liberal to the Quebec Pro¬ 
vincial Assembly ; in 1874 to the Federal Assem¬ 
bly. He stood first among the Colonial represen¬ 
tatives at Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 
1897. Born, 1841. 

Law, John. Scotch financier in France. Promo¬ 
ter of the “ South Sea Bubble. ” Born, 1671 ; died, 
1729. 

Lawrence, James. American naval commander. 
Commander of the Chesapeake; killed fighting 
the British Shannon. ‘ ‘ Don’t give up the ship. ’ ’ 
Born, 1781 ; died, 1813. 

Layard, Sir Henry Austin. Assyrian excavator. 
He made wonderful discoveries at the site of 
Nineveh, and wrote Nineveh arid its Remains, 
etc. Born, 1817 ; died, 1894. 

Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. English his¬ 
torian. Rationalism in Europe, European 
Morals, England in the 18th Century. Born, 
1838. 

Lebrun, Charles. French painter. The Family 
of Darius. Born, 1619 ; died, 1690. 

Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of Placentia. 
French politician. Third consul; Governor- 
General of Holland. Born, 1739 ; died, 1824. 

Lee, Arthur. American statesman and diplomatist. 
Member of Congress ; Minister to France. Born, 
1740 ; died, 1792. 

Lee, Fitzhugh. American general, Confederate 
soldier, Consul-General to Cuba. ’ Commanded a 
division in Cuba during reconstruction. Born, 

1835. 

Lee, Francis Lightfoot. American Revolutionary 
patriot. Member Congress; signed Declaration 
of Independence. Born, 1734; died, 1797. 

Lee, Henry. American Revolutionary soldier. 
“Light Horse Harry.” Served under Greene; 
Governor of Virginia. Born, 1756 ; died, 1818. 

Lee, Richard Henry. American Revolutionary 
statesman. Signed Declaration of Independence ; 
President of Congress; U. S. Senator. Born, 
1732 ; died, 1794. 

Lee, Robert Edward. American Confederate gen¬ 
eral. Commander-in-chief of Confederate army. 
Born, 1807; died, 1876. 

Leibnitz, Godfrey William, Baron. German 
mathematician and philosopher. In 1676 he dis¬ 
covered the infinitesimal calculus, about which 
he had a bitter dispute with Newton. In his 
treatise Protogcea (1693) he anticipated many of 
the discoveries of modern geology. In his New 
Essay on the Human Understanding he op¬ 
poses Locke. Born, 1646; died, 1716. 

Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of. Favorite of 
Queen Elizabeth ; commander of the English con¬ 
tingent in the Netherlands. Born, 1532; died, 1588. 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


17 


Lely, Sir Peter. German | ortrait painter in Eng¬ 
land. Painter to Charles II. Born, 1617 ; died, 
1680. 

Leonidas. King of Sparta. Leader of the Three 
Hundred at Thermopylae. Born, b. c. —; died, 
480. 

Leopold, I. Surnamed The Great. Emperor of 
Germany ; waged fierce wars with the Turks for a 
long period of years, beginning in 1664. His last 
great battles were in Italy, and his troops played 
an important part in the decisive battle of Blen¬ 
heim, 1704. Born, 1640; died, 1705. 

Le Sage, Alain Rene. French novelist. Gil Bias. 
Born, 1668; died, 1747. 

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. German critic and 
poet. Laocoon ; Nathan the Wise. Born, 1729 ; 
died, 1781. 

Lever, Charles. Irish novelist. Charles O'Malley, 
Harry Lorrequer. Born, 1806 ; died, 1872. 

Li Hung=Chang. Chinese statesman. He aided 
Gordon in suppressing the Taiping rebellion ; 
made governor-general of Chang, 1864 ; of Chi-li, 
1872 ; founded the Chinese navy; commander- 
in-chief in the w r ar with Japan, 1894 ; made treaty 
of peace ; visited Europe and America 1896 ; 
selected to deal with the western powers after the 
Boxer outbreak of 1900. Born, 1828. 

Lincoln , Abraham. President of the United States, 
1861-1865. Born in Kentucky; afterwards removed 
to Illinois; captain in Black Hawk War ; admitted 
to Illinois bar, 1836 ; WhigM. C., 1846 ; unsuccess¬ 
ful candidate for Senator against Douglas, 1856 ; 
elected President, i860; re-elected, 1864 ; assassi¬ 
nated by J. Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1865 ; died 
April 15. Born, 1809 ; died, 1865. 

Lind, Jenny. Celebrated Swedish singer. At 16 
years the favorite opera singer of her native land ; 
toured the world with marvelous success. Born, 
1821 ; died, 1887. 

Linnaeus, Charles von. German botanist. Studied 
medicine and natural history. System of Na¬ 
ture, Genera of Plants ; Philosophia Botanica , 
Species Plantarnm. Designated each species of 
plants by adding single epithet to name of genus. 
Born, 1707; died, 1778. 

Liszt, Franz. Celebrated Hungarian pianist. Born, 
1811 ; died, 1886. 

Livingstone, David. African explorer. Narra¬ 
tive of an Expedition to the Zambesi. Born, 
1817; died, 1873. 

Livy. (Titus Livius.) Roman historian. Famous 
for the rare style of his History of Rome. Born, 
b. c. 59; died, A. D. 17. 

Locke, John. English philosopher. Human 
Understanding. Born, 1632 ; died, 1704. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. American poet. 
Hyperion , Ballads and other Poems, The Span¬ 
ish Student, The Belfry of Bruges, Evangeline, 
The Golden Legion, Hiawatha, Miles Standish, 
Tales of a Wayside Inn. Born, 1807; died, 1882. 

Louis XiV. King of France. Son of Louis XIII. 
and Anne of Austria. Fought England, Austria, 
Spain, and Belgium, and engaged in the war of 
the Spanish Succession ; was a patron of literature 
and the arts. Born, 1638 ; died, 1715. 

Louis XVI. King of France. Married Marie 


Antoinette, 1770; succeeded Louis XV., 1774; 
imprisoned by the revolutionists; guillotined. 
Born, 1754; died, 1793. 

Louis Philippe. King of France. “The citizen 
king.” Abdicated in 1848. Born, 1773; died, 
1850. 

Lowell, Janies Russell. American poet, critic and 
diplomatist. The Bigelow Papers, The Vision 
of Sir Launfal, The Commemoration Ode, 
Fable for Critics, The Cathedral, Among my 
Books, My Study Windows. Minister to Spain 
and England. Born, 1819; died, 1891. 

Loubet, Emile. President of France. He studied 
the law ; was elected deputy in 1876 ; Senator in 
1885 ; became Premier in 1892 ; President of the 
Senate in 1896, and succeeded M. Faure as Presi¬ 
dent of the Republic of France in 1899. Born, 
i839- 

Loyola, Ignatius. He founded the Society of 
Jesus, with the object of renovating the Church 
and converting the infidels ; left a devotional 
work called Spiritual Exercise. Born, 1491 ; 
died, 1536. 

Lubbock, Sir John. English banker and natural¬ 
ist ; member Parliament. The Origin of Civili¬ 
zation. Born, 1834. 

Lucian. Greek essayist and satirist. Famous for 
his delightful style and fine humor. Dialogues 
of the Dead; True Histories. Born, 125 ; died, 
180. 

Luther, Martin. German reformer. Became a 
priest in 1507 ; published (1517) ninety-five propo¬ 
sitions against indulgences; burnt the Pope’s 
Bull at Wittenburg. Justification by faith was 
the central point of his theology. Born, 1483 ; 
died, 1546. 

Lycurgus. Spartan legislator. Instituted com¬ 
munity of property and double executive at 
Sparta in the 9th century. Born, b. c. 850 ; 
died, —. 

Lyell, Sir Charles. English geologist. Founded 
the uniformcan theory of geology. Principles 
of Geology. Born, 1797 ; died, 1875. 

Lyttelton, Sir Thomas. English lawyer and 
judge. Tenures. Born, 1420 ; died, 1481. 

Lytton, Sir Edward G. E. Lytton Bulwer, Baron. 
English novelist and dramatist. The Caxtons ; 
Richelieu. Born, 1805 ; died, 1873. 

Lytton, Lord Edward Robert Bulwer. (“Owen 
Meredith.”) English statesman and novelist. 
Lucille. Born, 1831. 

Xflacaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord. English 

1^1 historian and essayist. History of England, 
Essays, Lays of Ancient Rome. Born, 1809 ; 
died, 1859. 

flaclaren, Ian (nom de plume of Rev. John Wat¬ 
son). Was minister of the Free Church in Lo- 
giealmond, and in Glasgow and Liverpool. 
Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush , etc. Born, 1850. 

Macdonald, Sir John Alexander. Regarded as 
Canada’s greatest statesman ; organizer of the 
first government of the Dominion and its first 
Prime Minister. Born, 1815 ; died, 1891. 

riacHaster, John Bach. American historian. Pro¬ 
fessor American history, University of Pennsyl- 

759 



18 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


vania. History of the People of the United 
States, etc. Born, 1852. 

HcCarthy , Justin. A11 Irish author and statesman, 
header of his party in House in Parliament, 1890 
to 1896. A History of Our Own Times , History 
of the Four Georges, and a number of popular 
novels. Born, 1830. 

McClellan, George B. American general. Won 
battle of Antietam in the Civil War. Born, 1826 ; 
died, 1885. 

McKinley, William. American statesman ; served 
in the Civil War; entered Congress in 1877 ; 
passed in 1890 a tariff measure named after him ; 
was elected to the U. S. Presidency as the cham¬ 
pion of a sound currency in opposition to Mr. 
Bryan in November, 1896, and again in Novem¬ 
ber, 1900. Born, 1844. 

Madison, James. American President. Member 
of the Virginia Legislature, of the convention of 
1787, and a strenuous advocate of the Constitu¬ 
tion ; joint author with Hamilton and Jay of the 
Federalist; M. C., 1789-97; Secretary of State, 
1801-9; President, 1809-17. Born, 1751; died, 
1836. 

riagellan, Ferdinand de. Portuguese navigator. 
Magellan’s Straits is named after him. Born, 
1470 ; died, 1521. 

ITahan, Alfred Thayer. An American naval officer 
and writer. Influence of Sea Power upon His¬ 
tory. Born, 1840. 

Mahomet. Arabian prophet. Founder of Mo¬ 
hammedanism. When 40 years of age, receiving 
a pretended revelation from Allah, he devoted 
himself to the propagation of a new religion. 
His faith was rejected at Mecca, but taken up at 
Medina. He fled from Mecca 622 (The Hegira); 
was originally a monogamist, and at first as¬ 
serted liberty of conscience. Born, 570 ; died, 632. 

Mandeville, Sir John. English traveler in the 
Hast. Often called the first English prose writer. 
Born, 1300 ; died, 1372. 

Mann, Horace. American educationist. Mem¬ 
ber of Congress; President of Antioch College. 
Anti-slavery advocate. Born, 1796; died, 1859. 

Marat, Jean P. French Revolutionist. Assassi¬ 
nated. Born, 1744; died, 1793. 

Marconi, Guglielmo. Italian electrician. Dis¬ 
covered a practical system of telegraphing with¬ 
out wires. Born, 1875. 

Maria Theresa. Empress of Austria and Queen 
of Hungary. Her husband, Francis, Duke of 
Lorraine, was chosen Emperor in 1745, but she 
was the real power ; took part in the Seven Years’ 
War ; abolished feudal service. Born, 1717 ; died, 

• I 7?°* 

Marion, Francis. American general and patriot. 
Noted for his guerilla warfare against the British 
during the Revolutionary war. Born, 1732 ; died, 
1795 - 

Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of. English 
commander. Made Earl of Marlborough, 1689 ; 
commanded English forces in Low Countries, 1689; 
deposed for his Jacobite intrigue, 1692 ; restored, 
1696 ; commander of allied armies in Holland, 
1702 ; won battle of Blenheim, 1704 ; Ramillies, 
1706 ; Malplaquet, 1709. His wife was the confi- 
760 


dante of Queen Anne. In disgrace from 1711 till 
accession of George I. Born, 1650 ; died, 1722. 

Marlowe, Christopher. English poet and drama¬ 
tist. Born, 1564; died, 1593. 

Marshal, John. Chief Justice of the United States* 
Captain in the Revolutionary War, at the close 
of which he began to practice law in Virginia ; a 
member of the Virginia Convention (1788) ; in 
1797, with Pinckney and Gerry, he went on a 
diplomatic mission to France ; elected to Con¬ 
gress in 1799 ; appointed Secretary of State 1800, 
and resigned that office to become Chief Justice. 
Was the greatest judge that ever held the latter 
office. Born, 1755 ; died, 1835. 

flaartens, Maarten. Dutch novelist. Wrote in Eng¬ 
lish God's Fool, My Lady Nobody , etc. Born, 
1858. 

Mary. Queen of England. Married Philip II. of 
Spain. Persecutor of the Protestants. Born, 15.16; 
died, 1558. 

Mary Stuart. Queen of Scots. Daughter of 
James V. Was invited to the throne of Scotland 
(1560.) Compelled to take refuge in England, 
she was finally beheaded by Elizabeth on a charge 
of conspiracy. Born, 1542 ; died, 1587. 

Mathew, Theobald. “Father Mathew.” Irish 
temperance reformer. Born, 1790 ; died, 1856. 

Mazzini, Guiseppe. Italian patriot. Co-operated 
with Garibaldi; founder of Young Italy. Born, 
1808 ; died, 1872. 

Meade, George G. American general. Won battle 
of Gettysburg. Born, 1815 ; died, 1872. 

Medici, Catherine de’. Queen of Henry II. of 
France. Instigated massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
Born, 1519; died, 1589. 

Medici, Lorenzo de’. Grand Duke of Florence. 
“The Magnificent.” Patron of art and litera¬ 
ture ; adorned Florence. Born, 1448 ; died, 1492. 

Meissonier, Jean Louis Earnest. French painter. 
Distinguished for his highly finished small works. 
The Chess Players; Freedland or 1807. Born, 
1813; died, 1891. 

Mendelssohn = BarthoIdy, Felix. German com 
poser. Among his most famous works are his 
Songs Without Words. Born, 1809; died, 1847. 

Mesmer, Frederick B. Suabian physician. 
Founder of Mesmerism. Born, 1731 ; died, 1815. 

Meyerbeer, James. German composer. Romilda 
e Costanza , 1818; Semiramide Riconosciula , 
1819; Crociato in Egypto , 1824; Robert le 
Diable , 1831; Huguenots, 1836 ; L'Etoile du 
Nord, 1854. Born, 1791 ; died, 1864. 

Mezzofanti, Guiseppe G., Cardinal. Italian lin¬ 
guist. Born, 1774 ; died, 1849. 

Michael Angelo (Buonarotti). Italian painter, 
sculptor, and architect. Painted the fresco of 
the Last Judgment, and prophets, sibyls, etc., at 
the Sistine Chapel. Among his great sculptures 
are the gigantic marble David and Moses ; was 
appointed architect of St. Peter’s, and formed a 
model for the dome ; wrote sonnets and poems. 
Born, 1474; died, 1564. 

Miles, Nelson A. American General-in-chief of 
the United States army in Spanish War. Re¬ 
ceived surrender of Porto Rico. Won fame in 
Civil War. Captured Jefferson Davis. Born, 1839. 


# 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


19 


nil I, John Stuart. English political economist and 
philosopher. Logic, Political Economy, Exam- 
inatio?i of Sir IV . Hamilton's Philosophy. Born, 
1806 ; died, 1873. 

Millais, Sir John E. English painter. Return of 
the Dove to the Ark. Born, 1829; died, 1896. 

Miller, Hugh. Scotch geologist. Old Red Sand¬ 
stone. Born, 1802 ; died, 1856. 

Miltiades. Athenian general. Commander at Ma¬ 
rathon. Flourished 500 b. c. 

flilton, John. English poet. Paradise Lost. Wrote 
many prose, political and controversial works. 
His sonnets are among the best in the language. 
His other works are Comus , L'Allegro, II Pen- 
seroso, Samson Agonistes, Paradise Regained, 
Lycidas. Born, 1608; died, 1674. 

Mirabeau, Gabriel H. de Riquetti, Count of. 
French orator and revolutionist. Entered army, 
1767 ; imprisoned by his father at various times 
for intrigues and debts ; president of National 
Convention, 1791. Born, 1749; died, 1791. 

nitchell, Donald G. (“ Ik. Marvel.”) American 
author. My Farm at Edgewood; Reveries of a 
Bachelor. Born, 1822. 

Mithridates. “The Great.” King of Pontus. 
With Tigranes of Armenia he fought the Romans 
for many years. Born, b. c. 130 ; died, 63. 

Moltke, Hillmuth, Count von. German general. 
Conqueror in the Franco-Prussian war. Born, 
1800; died, 1891. 

Monroe, Janies. American President. Captain in 
Revolutionary War; studied law with Jefferson ; 
delegate to Congress, 1783 ; opponent of Consti¬ 
tution ; Senator, 1790; Minister to France, 1794-6; 
Governor of Virginia, 1799-1802; Envoy-Extraor¬ 
dinary to France, 1802 ; Minister to England, 
1803 ; Governor of Virginia, 1811 ; Secretary of 
State, 1811-17; President, 1817-25. Born, 1758; 
died, 1831. 

riontcalm, Louis J. de St. V6ran, Marquis of. 
French commander in Canada. Killed on Abra¬ 
ham’s Heights, in the battle with Wolfe. Born, 
1712; died, 1759. 

riontesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de. 
French author. Spirit of the Laws. Born, 1689 ; 

died, 1755- 

Montezuma 11. Last Emperor of Mexico. Mor¬ 
tally wounded while attempting to quell insur¬ 
rection of his subjects against Cortez. Born, 1470; 
died, 1520. 

Moody, Dwight Lyman. Evangelist. Associated 
with Mr. Sankey; visited Great Britain in 1873 
and 1883. Born, 1837 ; died, 1900. 

Moore, Thomas. Irish poet. Lalla Rookh, Irish 
Melodies, The Epicurean, Life of Sheridan, 
Life of Lord Byron. Born 1779; died, 1852. 

More, Sir Thomas. English statesman and author. 
Lord Chancellor; became favorite of Henry VIII.; 
published Utopia , 1516; speaker of House of 
Commons, 1523 ; Lord Chancellor, 1532 ; refused 
to acknowledge the validity of Henry’s marriage 
to Anne Boleyn. Born, 1480 ; died, 1530. 

Morris, Gouverneur. American Revolutionary 
statesman and orator. Minister to France ; United 
States Senator ; promoter of Erie Canal. Born, 
1754 ; died, 1816. 


florris, Robert. American financier and states¬ 
man. Aided the Government with funds in the 
Revolution ; Superintendent of Finances, 1781-4; 
imprisoned for debt. Born, 1734; died, 1800. 

Morris, William. English poet and artistic de¬ 
signer of household decorations. The Earthly 
Paradise, News from Nowhere, etc. Born, 
1834; died, 1896. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. American inventor 
of telegraph. Constructed small recording elec¬ 
tric telegraph in 1835 ; constructed telegraph 
line from Washington to Baltimore, and brought 
telegraph into successful operation in 1846. Born, 
1794 ; died, 1872. 

Motley, John Lothrop. American historian and 
diplomatist. Minister to England and Austria. 
The Rise of the Dutch Republic. Born, 1814; 
Died, 1877. 

Mozart, Johann. German composer. The Mar¬ 
riage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, The Magic 
Flute. His latest work, the Requiem, is his most 
sublime. Born, 1756; died, 1791. 

Muller, F. Max. German philologist in England. 
Chips from a German Workshop. Born, 1833; 
died, 1900. 

Murat, Joachim. French Marshal and King of 
Naples. Dashing cavalry leader. Born, 1770; 
died, 1815. 

/Turillo, Bartholomew Stephen. Spanish painter. 
His virgin saints and his beggar boys are famous. 
Among his great works are St. Elizabeth of Hun¬ 
gary, The Prodigal Son, The Young Beggar, 
Moses Striking the Rock, St. Anthony of Padua, 
and the Marriage of St. Catheruie. Born, 1618 ; 
died, 1682. 

N ansen, Fridtiof. Norwegian Arctic discoverer. 
Made his first journey across Greenland in 
1888 ; set out in 1893 in the Fram, to drift to 
the pole; reached in 1895 86° if north latitude, 
the highest then attained. Wintered in Franz 
Joseph Land ; rescued in 1896. The First Cross¬ 
ing op Greenland, Farthest North. Born, 1861. 

Nelson, Horatio, Viscount. English naval com¬ 
mander. Went to sea at thirteen ; post captain, 
1779; rear admiral, 1797 ; won battle of the Nile, 
1798; second in command at Copenhagen, 1801, 
(but really won the fight) ; in 1805, with twenty- 
seven sail of the line and four frigates, defeated 
combined French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar, 
where he was mortally wounded. Born, 1758 ; 
died, 1805. 

Nero. Roman Emperor (54-68). Put his mother 
to death; persecuted Christians ; said to have 
burned Rome. Born, 37 ; died, 68. 

Newcomb, Simon. American astronomer. Con¬ 
ducted the American Nautical Almanac. Wrote 
much on astronomy. Born, 1835. 

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. English Catho¬ 
lic theologian. Born, 1801 ; died, 1840. 

Newton, Sir Isaac. English mathematician and 
philosopher. His great work, the Principia, 
appeared in 1687. In this he shows that every 
particle of matter is attracted by every other par¬ 
ticle with a force inversely proportional to the 
squares of the distances. Born, 1642 ; died, 1727. 

761 





20 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Ney, Michael. “ The Bravest of the Brave.” One 
of Napoleon’s marshals. Ted Guard at Waterloo ; 
shot by order of houis XVII. Born, 1769; died, 
1815. 

Nicholas 1 . Czar of Russia. Warred with Turkey 
and Persia ; put down Polish insurrection ; en¬ 
gaged in Crimean War. Born, 1796; died, 1855. 

Nicholas 11. Czar of Russia. Son of Alexander 
III., and his successor in November, 1894. Mar¬ 
ried Princess Alice, granddaughter of Queen 
Victoria. Born, 1868. 

Nightingale, Florence. English philanthropist. 
Notes on Nursing. Born, 1820. 

Nobel, Alfred. Danish manufacturer. Discovered 
how to make dynamite. Left $10,000,000, most 
of it to go for annual prizes for important scienti¬ 
fic discoveries, best literature, and best work in 
the cause of humanity. Born, 1833 > died, 1896. 

Nordenskioed, Baron Nils Adolf Erik. Swedish 
explorer. In 1878-79 he made the first voyage 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, north of Asia. 
Voyage of the Vega. Born, 1832. 

O ates, Titus. English informer; inventor of 
the “ Popish Plot.” Born, 1620; died, 1705. 
O’Connell, Daniel. Irish orator and agitator ; ad¬ 
vocate of Catholic Emancipation, and the repeal 
of the union. Born, 1775 ; died, 1847. 

Oersted, Hans C. Danish scientist; founder of 
the science of electro-magnetism. Born, 1775 ; 
died, 1851. 

Oglethorpe, James. British general; colonizer of 
Georgia. Born, 1688; died, 1785. 

Ohm, Georg Simon. German physicist. Dis¬ 
covered the mathematical theory of the electric 
current, known as Ohm’s Taw. Born, 1787; 
died, 1854. 

Oliphant, Margaret. Authoress. She wrote on 
history, biography, and criticism ; The Makers 
of Florence, of Venice, of Modern Rome ; Lives 
of Dante , Cervantes, and Edward Irving. 
Born, 1828 ; died, 1897. 

Origen. Greek Father of the Church. He^^i iu. 
Held universal restoration of the dead. Born, 
185 ; died, 253. 

Otis, Hariison Gray. American statesman and 
orator. A Federalist leader in Congress. Born, 
1765 ; died, 1848. 

Otis, James. American Revolutionary statesman 
and orator. Argued against writs of assistance ; 
led popular party. Born, 1726 ; died, 1783. 
Outram, Sir James. English general in India. Ted 
expedition against Persia, 1836. Born, 1802 ; 
died, 1863. 

Ovid, (Publius Ovidius Naso). Roman poet. Meta¬ 
morphoses. Born, 13. c. 43 ; died, a. d. 18. 

P aderewski, Ignace Jan. Celebrated pianist. 
Born at Podolia, in Russian Poland ; master of 
his art by incessant practice from early child¬ 
hood ; twice visited the United States ; a brilliant 
composer as well as performer. Born, i860. 
Paganini, Niccolo. Italian violinist; celebrated 
for his performances on a single string. Born, 
1784; died, 1840. 

Paine, Robert Treat. American lawyer and states- 
762 


man. Signed Declaration of Independence. Born 
1731 ; died, 1814. 

Paine, Thomas. American (English born) deist 
and political writer. The Age of Reason, Com¬ 
mon Sense. Born, 1737 ; died, 1809. 

Paley, William. English divine and theologian. 
Evidences. Born, 1743; died, 1805. 

Palissy, Bernard. French potter. Discovered the 
art of enamelling stoneware. Treatise on the 
Origin of Fountains. Born, 1510; died, 1596. 

Palmerston, Henry John Temple, 3d Viscount. 
English statesman ; Minister of Foreign Affairs ; 
long Prime Minister. Born, 1784; died, 1865. 

Park, Mungo. Scotch traveler in Africa. Travels 
in the Interior of Africa. Born, 1771 ; died, 
1805. 

Parker, Theodore. American theologian and re¬ 
former. Transient and Permanent in Chris¬ 
tianity. Born, 1810 ; died, i860. 

Parkman, Francis. American historian. Con¬ 
spiracy of Pontiac, A Half Century of Conflict, 
etc. Born, 1823 ; died, 1893. 

Parnell, Charles Stewart. Irish politician and 
agitator; M. P. ; head of the Tand Teague move¬ 
ment. Born, 1847 1 died, 1891. 

Parr, Catherine. Tast Queen of Henry VIII. of 
England, whom she succeeded in surviving. 
Born, 1509 ; died, 1548. 

Parton, James. Noted American biographer. Mar¬ 
ried sister of N. P. Willis, who, as ‘‘Fannie 
Fern,” wrote many children’s books. Born, 
1822 ; died, 1891. 

Pascal, Blaise. Illustrious French thinker and 
writer. Was distinguished at once as a mathema¬ 
tician, a physicist, and a philosopher. Born, 
1623 ; died, 1662. 

Pasteur, Touis. French bacteriologist. He dis¬ 
covered the origin of fermentation, the silk-worm 
disease, splenic fever, etc., to be due to micro¬ 
organisms, and founded the germ theory of dis¬ 
ease. Born, 1822 ; died, 1895. 

Patrick, Saint. Apostle of Ireland. Born in Scot¬ 
land. One of the first to preach Christianity in 
Ireland. Born, 372 ; died, 463. 

Paul, Saint, of Tarsus. Apostle of the Gentiles. 
Born, — ; died, 65. 

Payne, John Howard. American dramatist and 
poet. Home , Sweet Home. Born, 1792 ; died, 
1852. 

Peabody, George. American banker in Tondon ; 
philanthropist. Founder of homes for work¬ 
ingmen in Tondon, of museums, etc. Patron of 
education. Born, 1795 ; died, 1869. 

Peary, Robert. American Arctic discoverer. He 
made three journeys to the far North ; crossed 
northern Greenland in 1891 and 1894, and was in 
the polar regions in 1901. Born, 1856. 

Peel, Sir Robert. English statesman and Prime 
Minister. Repealed the Corn Taws. Born, 1788 ; 
died, 1850. 

Penn, William. Founder of Pennsylvania. Theson 
of Admiral Penn, born in Tondon ; was converted 
to Quakerism while a student at Oxford. His 
father’s death brought him a fortune and a claim 
upon the Crown, which lie commuted for a grant 
of land in North America, where he founded 





FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


21 


(1682) Pennsylvania. Here he established a 
refuge for all persecuted religionists, and, laying 
out Philadelphia as the capital, governed his 
colony wisely and generously for two years. He 
returned to England, where his friendship with 
James II. brought many advantages to the 
Quakers, but laid him under harassing and unde¬ 
served prosecutions for treason in the succeeding 
reign. The closing years of his life were clouded 
by mental decay. Born, 1644; died, 1718. 

Pericles. Athenian orator and statesman. Came 
forward as a leader of the democracy 470 b. c. 
He secured the ostracism of Cimon, and after 
that event, and the ostracism of Thucydides, was 
the first man in Athens. He greatly increased 
the influence of Athens, which he adorned with 
noble public works. Born, b. c. — ; died, 429. 

Perry, Matthew C. American commodore. Chief 
of expedition to Japan. Born, 1795; died, 1858: 

Perry, Oliver H. American naval commander. 
Won battle of Take Erie. Born, 1785 ; died, 
1820. 

Pestalozzi, Giovanni H. Swiss educator. Lein- 
hard und Gertrude. Born, 1746 ; died, 1827. 

Peter the Hermit. Preacher of the First Crusade. 
Born, 1050 ; died, 1115. 

Peter I. (“ The Great.”) Czar of Russia. Visited 
Western Europe in 1697 ; was for a time a ship- 
carpenter in Holland, and spent eight months in 
England ; on his return to Russia, he reorganized 
the army and navy, founded schools, and took 
measures to increase Russian commerce ; he 
made an alliance with Poland and Denmark, 
(1701) against Charles XII., whom he defeated at 
Pultowa (1709) ; founded St. Petersburg (1703). 
Born, 1672 ; died, 1725. 

Petrarch, Francis. (Francesco Petrarca.) Italian 
poet and scholar. Sonnets. Born, 1304 ; died, 
3:374. 

Phidias. Greatest of Greek sculptors. His master¬ 
pieces were the colossal ivory-and-gold statues 
(forty feet high) of Minerva at the Parthenon, 
and of Zeus at Olympia in Elis ; the latter being 
counted one of the wonders of the world. Born, 
b. c. 490 ; died, 432. 

Philip II. King of Macedonia. Father of Alex¬ 
ander the Great. Assassinated. Born, b. c. 382 ; 

died, 335 - x . _ _ 

Philip II. (“Augustus.”) King of France. An¬ 
nexed Normandy, Anjou, Lorraine ; won battle 
of Bouvines. Born, 1165 ; died, 1223. 

Philip IV. (“The Fair.”) King of France. Sup¬ 
pressed the Templars ; imprisoned Pope Boniface 
III. Born, 1268 ; died, 1314. 

Philip II. King of Spain. Son of Charles V. 
Caused revolt in Netherlands; despatched Ar¬ 
mada against England. Born, 1527 > died, 1598* 

Phillips, Wendell. American orator, Abolitionist. 
Speech in Faneuil Hall , 1836. Born, 1811 ; died, 
1884. 

Pierce, Franklin. American President. Born in 
New Hampshire ; studied law ; Democratic mem¬ 
ber Congress, 1832-37 ; U. S. Senator, 1837-42 ; 
brigadier-general in Mexican War, President, 
1853-57 ; opposed coercion of seceding States. 
Born, 1804; died, 1869. 


Pindar. Lyric poet of Thebes. Odes. Born, b. c. 
518 ; died, 442. 

Pisistratus. Tyrant of Athens. Patron of learn¬ 
ing. Said to have had Iliad and Odyssey reduced 
to writing for the first time. Born, b. c. 612 ; 
died, 527. 

Pitt, William. English statesman and orator ; the 
second son of Lord Chatham. Entered Parlia¬ 
ment in 1781 ; Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
1782 ; First Lord of the Treasury, and Prime 
Minister, 1783 ; resigned in 1801, but took office 
again in 1804; was the head and front of the 
great coalition against Bonaparte. Born, 1759; 
died. 1806. 

Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti). Pope. 
Dogmas of Immaculate Conception and Papal 
Infallibility promulgated during his incumbency; 
temporal power lost 1870. Born, 1792 ; died, 1878. 

Pizarro, Francis. Spanish conqueror of Peru. 
Born, 1475 ; died, 1541. 

Plato. Greek philosopher and writer. Among 
his works are The Republic , Phczdo, Gorgias , 
Crito, and Apology for Socrates. Born, b. c. 
428; died, 347. 

Pliny, The Elder. Roman savant and writer. Nat¬ 
ural History. Born, 23 ; died, 79. 

Pliny, The Younger. Roman writer and states¬ 
man. Panegyric on Trajan. Born, 61 ; died, 106. 

Plutarch, Greek biographer. Lives. Born, 45 ; 
died, 120. 

Poe, Edgar Allen. American poet. The Raven. 
Born, 1811 ; died, 1849. 

Polk, James K. American President. Born in North 
Carolina ; removed to Tennessee, 1806 ; studied 
law ; member of Congress, 1825 ; elected speaker, 
1835 and 1837 ; governor of Tennessee, 1839-41 ; 
Democratic President, 1845-49 ; prosecuted Mexi¬ 
can War. Born, 1795 ; died, 1849. 

Polk, Leonidas, Bishop. American Confederate 
general and Episcopal prelate. Conspicuous at 
Shiloh and Stone River. Born, 1806 ; died, 1864. 

Polo, Marco. Venetian traveler in the East. The 
Book of Marco Polo. Born, 1256 ; died, 1333. 

Pompey (Cnseus Pompeius). Roman general and 
statesman. Conqueror of Spain and victor over 
Mithridates ; leader of aristocracy ; rival of Caesar ; 
defeated at Pharsalia. Born, b. E. 106 ; died, 48. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan. Spanish discoverer of 
Florida. Born, 1460; died, 1521. 

Pope, Alexander. English poet. Pastorals , Essay 
on Criticism , Essay on Man ) etc. Born, 1688; 
died, 1744. 

Porter, David. American naval officer. Com¬ 
mander of the Essex. Born, 1780; died, 1843. 

Porter, David D. Atnerican naval officer. Ad¬ 
miral ; bombarded Fort Fisher. History of the 
Navy in the Rebellion. Born, 1813; died, 1887. 

Porter, Noah. American philosophical writer. 
President of Yale. Human Intellect. Born, 1811. 

Prescott, William Hickling. American historian. 
Ferdinand and Isabella , etc. Born, 1796; died, 
1859. 

Ptolemy I. (“Soter.”) King of Egypt. Founder 
of the dynasty of Greek sovereigns in Egypt; 
patron of literature. Born, b. c. 367 ; died, 282. 

Ptolemy II. (“ Philadelphus ”). King of Egypt. 

763 





22 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Founder of Alexandrian Library ; Theocritus, 
Euclid, Aratus lived at his court. Born, b. c. 
309; died, 247. 

Ptolemy, Claudius. Greek mathematician and 
geographer. Almagest. Lived from about 100 
to 160. 

Pulaski, Count. Polish general in the American 
Revolution. Leader of “Pulaski’s Legion;” 
killed at siege of Savannah. Born, 1747; died, 1779. 
Putnam, Israel. General in the American Revolu¬ 
tion. Conspicuous at Bunker Hill. Born, 1718 ; 
died, 1790. 

Pyrrhus. King of Epirus. Defeated the Romans ; 
conquered Macedonia; one of the greatest gen¬ 
erals of antiquity. Born, b. c. 318; died, 272. 
Pythagoras. Greek philosopher and writer. 
Taught doctrine of transmigration of souls. Born, 
b. c. 570; died, 510. 

Q uincy, Josiah. American statesman and au¬ 
thor. Federalist member of Congress. His¬ 
tory of Harvard University. Born, 1772; 
died, 1864. 

Quincy, Josiah, Jr. American Revolutionary pa¬ 
triot and orator. Observations on the Boston 
Port Bill. Born, 1744; died, 1775. 

R abelais, Francois. French satirist and scholar. 
Joined Franciscans, but left the order. His 
great work is The Pleasant Story of the Giant 
Gargantua and his Son Pantagruel. Born, 
1495 ; died, 1553. 

Racine, Louis. French dramatist. Among his 
best works are the comedy Les Pladeurs (The 
Litigants), and the tragedies Britannicus, Iphi- 
getiie , Phidre , and Athalie. Born, 1639; died, 
1699. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter. English courtier, statesman, 
and author. History of the World. A favorite 
of Queen Elizabeth ; executed by James I. Born, 
1552; died, 1618. 

Randolph, John, of Roanoke. American politi¬ 
cian. Member of Congress ; Minister to Russia ; 
opposed Missouri Compromise ; caustic wit. Born, 
1773 ; died, 1833. 

Raphael, (Raffaele Sanzio) of Urbino. Italian 
painter. Sistine Afadonna. Among his other 
works are the frescoes called The School of 
Athens , The Transfiguration , The Marriage of 
the Virgin , Galatea , and the cartoons (designs 
for tapestry of the Pope’s Chapel). Born, 1483 ; 
died, 1520. 

Read, Thomas Buchanan. American poet and ar¬ 
tist. The Wagoner of the Alleghanies. Born, 
1822; died,1872. 

Reed, Thomas B. Distinguised American Congress¬ 
man and Speaker of the House. A public speaker 
of note. Born, 1839. 

Renan, J. Ernest. French Orientalist and author. 

Life of fesus. Born, 1823 ; died, 1892. 

Revere, Paul. American Revolutionary patriot. 
Carried to Concord news of impending attack of 
Gage. Born, 1735 ; died, 1818. 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua. Englisn painter. Mrs. 
Siddons as the Tragic Muse. Born, 1723 ; died, 
1792. 


Rhodes, Cecil John. English adventurer. He be¬ 
came chief owner of the South African diamond 
mines ; Prime Minister of Cape Colony in 1890 ; 
and chief settler of ‘ ‘ Rhodesia. ’ ’ Was accused of 
fomenting the war with the Transvaal; projected 
a railroad from Cape Town to Cairo. Born, 1853. 

Richard I. (Cceur de Lion.) King of England. 
Conquered Acre ; defeated Saladin. Born, 1157 1 
died, 1199. 

Richard III. King of England. Put Edward V. 
to death and usurped his crown ; killed at Bos- 
worth. Born, 1452 ; died, 1485. 

Richardson, Samuel. English novelist. Clarissa 
Harlowe , Sir Charles Grandison , Pamela. 
Born, 1689; died, 1761. 

Richelieu, Armand Jean Duplessis, Cardinal. 
French statesman. Made Cardinal, 1622; Prime 
Minister, 1624 ; secured exile of his foe, Marie de 
Medicis, 1630 ; reduced the Huguenots and cap¬ 
tured Rochelle ; supported German Protestants 
against Austria ; founded French Academy (1635); 
added Alsace, Lorraine, and Roussillon to France. 
Born, 1585 ; died, 1642. 

Richter, John Paul Frederich (Jean Paul). Ger¬ 
man novelist. 7 horn , Fruit , and Flower Pieces. 
Born, 1763 ; died, 1825. 

Rienzi, Nicolo Gabrini. Italian patriot and enthu¬ 
siast. Tribune ; for a short time ruler of Rome : 
“the friend of Petrarch, hope of Italy.” Born, 
1313 ; died, 1354. 

Roberts, Lord Frederick. The hero of Kandahar 
(1880). Commander-in-chief of British forces in 
Boer War, South Africa, 1899-1900. Succeeded 
Lord Wolseley as commander-in-chief, and was 
made an earl. Born, 1832. 

Robert I. (Bruce.) King of Scotland. Conquered 
Scotland from the English. Born, 1276 ; died, 
1329. 

Robespierre, Francois J. M. French Revolution¬ 
ist. Leader of the extreme radicals ; ruler dur¬ 
ing the Reign of Terror ; guillotined. Born, 1759 ; 
died, 1794. 

Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, Earl of. 
English statesman ; Prime Minister, 1894-1895. 
Born, 1847. 

Roentgen, William Konrad von. German phys¬ 
icist. He discovered in 1895 the X-rays or Roent¬ 
gen-rays. Born, 1845. 

Rockefeller, John D. American capitalist; Presi¬ 
dent Standard Oil Company. A man of immense 
wealth; gave largely to Chicago University. Born, 
1840. 

Roland, Madame ManonJ. P. French Republican 
and writer. Memoirs. Guillotined. Born, 1754; 
died, 1793. 

Roosevelt, Theodore. Vice-President of the 
United States with McKinley. Graduated Har¬ 
vard, 1880 ; entered New York Legislature, 1882 ; 
appointed head of Civil Service Commission by 
President Harrison, 1889, and again by Cleveland, 
1893 5 Commissioner Police in New York, 1895 ; 
Assistant Secretary of Navy, 1897 ; Hero “ Rough 
Riders” Spanish War, 1898; Governor of New 
York, 1899; elected Vice-President, 1900. Born, 
1858. 

Rothschild, Meyer Amschel. Famous banker. 






FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


2 3 


The founder of the Rothschild house, born at 
Frankfort-on-th e-Main, a Jew by birth; began 
his career as a money lender and made a large 
fortune. Born, 1743 ; died, 1812. 

Rubens, Peter Paul. Dutch painter. Descent 
from the Cross, Last Judgment, Battle of the 
Amazons , Judgment of Paris, Rape of the 
Sabines. Born, 1577 ; died, 1646. 

Ruskin, John. English art critic. Modern Paint¬ 
ers. Born, 1819 ; died, 1900. 

S alisbury , Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoigne Cecil, 
Marquis of. English statesman. Entered the 
House of Lords as Lord Salisbury in 1867; 
became Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1881, 
and, on the death of Beaconsfield, leader of the 
Conservative party ; he was three times raised 
to the Premiership, the last time on Lord Rose- 
berry’s retirement in 1896. Born, 1830. 
Sampson, William T. American Rear Admiral. 
Commanded United States fleets Atlantic squad¬ 
ron, during Spanish War. Born 1840. 
Savonarola, Girolamo. Italian reformer. A Do¬ 
minican monk and preacher; denounced the 
corruptions of the Church ; deserted by his fol¬ 
lowers ; put to death. Born, 1452 ; died, 1498. 

Schiller, John C. F. von. German dramatist and 
poet. Studied law and medicine, but finally fol¬ 
lowed his own inclination to literature. The Rob¬ 
bers , Thirty Years' War, Wallenstein, Mary 
Stuart, William Tell, etc. 

Schley, Winfield Scott. Rear Admiral American 
Navy. Rescued Greeley Expedition, 1884. Com¬ 
manded in naval victory over Spanish fleet at 
Santiago, 1898. Born, 1839. 

Schubert, Francis. German composer. His Songs 
{Lieder) and Ballads are his best work ; musical, 
tender, and expressive in the rarest degree. Born, 
1797 ; died, 1828. 

Schurz, Carl. American journalist and politician. 

Secretary of the Interior, 1877-1881. Born, 1829. 
Scott, Sir Walter. Scotch novelist, poet and his¬ 
torian. Waver ley novels ; Marmion, Lay of the 
Last Minstrel, The Lady of the Lake, Rokeby, 
The Vision of Don Roderick. Son of an Edin¬ 
burgh writer to the signet; lived at Abbotsford ; 
ruined by commercial speculation. Born, 1771; 
died, 1852. 

Scott, Winfield. Eminent American general. 
Prominent service in the War of 1812 against the 
British ; received gold medal from Congress, and 
was promoted to major-general ; 1841, made com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the United States army ; 
1847, assumed command in Mexico; received 
surrender of the City of Mexico ; defeated for 
presidency by Franklin Pierce ; made lieutenant- 
general. Born, 1786 ; died, 1866. 

Selkirk. Alexander. Scotch sailor. His adven¬ 
tures suggested Robinson Crusoe. Lived alone 
on Juan Fernandez, 1694-1709. Born, 1675 ; died, 
1723. 

Seward, William H. American Republican states¬ 
man. Secretary of State, 1861-69. Born, 1801 ; 
died, 1872. 

Shatter, William Rufus. American General. De¬ 
feated Spanish General Torrel, and received sur¬ 


render of Spanish army at Santiago, Cuba, 1898. 
Born, 1835. 

Shakespeare, William. Greatest English poet and 
dramatist. Lear, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, The 
Tempest, Midsummer Night's Dream ; born at 
Stratford-on-Avon ; married Anne Hathaway, 
1582 ; produced the poems Venus and Adonis, and 
the Rape of Liter ece, 1593-94, the only works pub¬ 
lished under his own hand ; first collected edi¬ 
tion of works appeared in 1623. Born, 1564: 
died, 1616. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. English poet. Cenci, 
Adonais, Prometheus, Revolt of Islam, Alastor, 
The Witch of Atlas ; was drowned off coast of 
Italy. Born, 1792 ; died, 1822. 

Sheridan, Philip H. American general. Won 
battles of Winchester, Cedar Creek, Five Forks. 
Born, 1831 ; died, 1888. 

Sherman, John. American politician and finan¬ 
cier. Secretary of the Treasury, 1877-81 ; Secre¬ 
tary of State, 1897-98. Born, 1823 ; died, 1900. 

Sherman, William Tecumseh. American general. 
Made the “ March to the Sea,” through Georgia. 
Born, 1820; died, 1891. 

Sickles, Daniel Edgar. American general. Elected 
to Congress 1856 ; brigadier-general in Civil War, 
losing a leg at Gettysburg; Minister to Spain, 
1869-73. In Congress, 1892-94. Born, 1822; 
died, 1901. 

Simon, Jules. French statesman and author of 
numerous works. Born, 1841; died, 1896. 

Smiles, Samuel, LL- D. Scotch editor and author. 
Among his books are Self-Help, Character, 
Thrift , Life and Labor, and the Biographies of 
Inventors. Born, 1816. 

Smith, Adam. Scotch political economist. Wealth 
of Nations. Born, 1723; died, 1790. 

Smith, Joseph. Founder of the Mormon Church. 
Claimed to dictate the Book of Mormon from 
gold plates found in New York State ; arrested 
and imprisoned in the jail at Carthage, Mo., where 
he was killed by a mob. Born, 1805 ; died, 1844. 

Smith, John, Captain. English adventurer. Fa¬ 
mous Governor of Colony of Virginia. History 
of Virginia. Born, 1579; died, 1631. 

Smith, Sydney, Rev. English divine and wit. 
Projector of the Edinburgh Review,Peter Plym- 
ley's Letters. Born, 1771; died, 1845. 

Socrates. Athenian philosopher. Teacher of 
Plato. Put to death for his radical opinions. 
Born, b. c. 468; died, 399. 

Southey , Robert, English poet laureate. Curse 
of Kehama, Madoc, Thalaba, Don Roderick. 
Born, 1774 ; died, 1843. 

Spencer,, Herbert. English philosopher. System 
of Evolutionary Philosophy. Born, 1820. 

Spinoza, Benedict. Dutch philosopher. Ethics 
Demonstrated by a Geometric Method. Born, 
1632 ; died,16 77. 

Stael, Anna M. L- G., Baroness de. French 
authoress. Opposed Napoleon and was banished. 
Corinne. Born, 1766; died, 1817. 

Standish, Miles, Captain. Plymouth colonist and 
soldier. Born, 1584 ; died, 1656. 

Stanley, Henry Morton. African explorer. Born 
in Wales ; went as a boy to America; became a 

765 







24 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


newspaper correspondent; in 1869 was sent by 
the New York Herald to Africa to “ find Living¬ 
stone ; ” succeeded in 1871. Wrote The Congo , 
In Darkest Africa, etc. Born, 1841. 

Stanton, Edwin McMasters. American states¬ 
man. Attorney-General of the United States 
under Buchanan ; Secretary of War under Presi¬ 
dents Lincoln and Johnson. Became a Justice 
of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1869. 
Born, 1815; died, 1869. 

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. One of the first agitat¬ 
ors of woman’s rights in the United States, and 
a leading advocate, lecturer, and writer on this 
subject and other reforms. Born, 1816. 

Stedman, Edmund Clarence. American poet, and 
banker. Aside from his original compositions, 
edited Victorian Poets, American Poets, Li¬ 
brary of American Literature. Born, 1833. 

Ste >hens, Alexander H. American statesman. 
V -e-President of the Southern Confederacy. 
Born, 1812; died, 1883. 

Stephenson, George. English inventor of the 
locomotive. In 1814 constructed a locomotive 
which drew eight cars; invented the steam 
blast pipe, and greatly improved the construction 
of the railroad ; finally built an engine running 
thirty-five miles an hour. Born, 1781 ; died, 1848. 

Stephenson, Robert. English inventor of the 
tubular bridge. Born, 1803 ; died, 1859. 

Sterne, Laurence. English writer. Tristram 
Shandy , Sentimental Journey. Born, 1713; 
died, 1768. 

Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour. English novel¬ 
ist. Treasure Island (1883) won him fame ; 
died in the Samoan Islands, where he made his 
home. Born, 1850 ; died, 1894. 

Stevenson, Adlai Ewing. American statesman. 
Vice-President of the United States, 1893-97, 
with Grover Cleveland. Nominated again in 
1900, with William Jennings Bryan, but failed of 
election. Born, 1835. 

Stewart, Alexander T. American millionaire 
merchant. Born, 1803; died, 1876. 

Stockton, Francis Richard. American novelist, 
and writer of humorous and fantastic tales. 
Rudder Grange and The Lady or the Tiger f 
Born, 1834. 

Story, Joseph. American jurist. Justice of the 
Supreme Court. Commentaries on the Consti¬ 
tution. Born, 1779; died, 1845. 

Stowe, Harriet E. Beecher. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 
Born, 1812; died, 1896. 

Strauss, David Friedrich. German rationalist. 
Originator of the mythical theory of the Scrip¬ 
tures; Professor of Divinity at Zurich. Author 
of The Life of Jesus , which caused a great sensa¬ 
tion by its skepticism. Born, 1808; died, 1874. 

Stuart, Gilbert C. American portrait painter. 
Portrait of George Washington. Born, 1756; 
died, 1828. 

Sullivan, Sir Arthur. Noted English musical 
composer. Author of Pinafore Pirates of Pen 
zance , and Patience. Born, 1844; died, 1900. 

Sumner, Charles. American Republican states¬ 
man, orator, and Senator. The Grandeur of 
Nations. Born, 1811; died, 1874. 

766 


Swedenborg, Emanuel. Swedish religionist and 
naturalist. The central point of his theosophy 
is the correspondence of the natural and the 
supernatural. Born, 1689; died, 1772. 

Swift, Jonathan. Irish divine and satirist. Entered 
Church ; became Dean of St. Patrick’s; Tale of a 
Tub, Gulliver's Travels. Born, 1667 ; died, 1745. 

'"T^alleyrand Perigord, Charles Maurice, Prince 
X of. French diplomatist and wit. Minister of 
Foreign Affairs. Born, 1754 ; died, 1836. 

Taney, Roger B. American jurist and Democratic 
statesman. Chief Justice of the United States. 
Born, 1777 ; died, 1864. 

Taylor, Bayard. American traveler, novelist, 
poet. Translator of Goethe’s Faust; Prince 
Deucalion ; Masque of the Gods ; John Godfrey's 
Fortunes. Born, 1825 ; died, 1878. 

Taylor, Zachary. American President. Entered 
army in 1808; major-general in Mexican War; 
won battle of'Buena Vista ; elected President by 
the Whigs in 1848. Born, 1784; died, 1850. 

Temple, Sir William. English statesman and 
author. Negotiated the Triple Alliance of 1668. 
Born, 1628; died, 1699. 

Tennyson, Alfred. English poet. Educated at 
Cambridge ; made poet-laureate in 1850. In Me- 
moriam, Enoch Arden, The Princess, Maud, 
The Idylls of the King, Queen Mary, Harold. 
Born, 1809 ; died, 1893. 

Tesla, Nikola. American electrician of Servian 
birth. He made remarkable experiments with 
currents of high frequency, and invented useful 
electrical devices. Born, 1857. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace. English novelist; 
born in Calcutta. Henry Esmond, Vanity Fair, 
The Newcomes, Tendennis, The Four Georges, 
English Humorists. Born, 1811; died, 1863. 

Thiers, Louis Adolphe. ‘ First President of the 
French Republic (1871-73.) History of the Con¬ 
sulate and Empire. Born, 1797 ; died, 1877. 

Thomas, George H. American Federal general. 
Saved army at Chickamauga; won battle of 
Nashville. Born, 1816 ; died, 1870. 

Thompson, Sir John S. O. Canadian jurist. At¬ 
torney-General and Minister of Justice (1885); 
Premier of Canada (1893). Born, 1844; died, 1894. 

Thomson, James. Scotch poet. The Seasons, 
The Castle of Indolence, Tancred and Sigis- 
munda. Born, 1700; died, 1748. 

Thoreau, Henry D. American author. The Con¬ 
cord and Merrimac Rivers, The Maine Woods. 
Born, 1817 ; died, 1862. 

Thorwaldsen, Albert D. Danish sculptor. Trium¬ 
phal March of Alexander, Statues of Christ and 
His Apostles. Born, 1770; died, 1844. 

Tindale, William. English reformer and martyr. 
Translated the New Testament into English. 
Was strangled and burned at the stake for heresy. 
Born, 1480 ; died, 1536. 

Tilden, Samuel J. American Democratic states 
man. Candidate for President in 1876. Born 
1814; died, 1885. 

Titian. (Tiziano Vecelli.) Italian painter. Among 
bis masterpieces are the Assumption of the 
Virgin, Presentation of the Virgin, The Last 
Supper. Born, 1477; died, 1566. 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


25 


Tocqueville, Alexis C. H. C. de. French author. 
American Democracy. Born, 1805; died, 1859. 

Tolstoi, Count Leo. Russian writer and social re¬ 
former. Famous as a poet and novelist ; devoted 
himself to remedy the ills of poverty ; living and 
toiling like a peasant. In 1901 he was banished 
from Russia on account of his radical teachings. 
IVar and Peace, Anna Karenina , The Kreutzer 
Sonata, etc. Born, 1828. 

Toombs, Robert. American statesman. United 
States Senate, 1853-59 5 leader of Georgia seces¬ 
sionists. Born, 1810; died, 1885. 

Torricelli, Evangelista. Italian physicist. In¬ 
ventor of the barometer. Born, 1608 ; died, 1647. 

Toussaint I’Ouverture, Francois. Negro chief of 
the Haytieu Rebellion. Born, 1743 ; died, 1803. 

Trollope, Anthony. Hnglish novelist. Barchester 
Towers. Born, 1815 ; died, 1S82. 

Trowbridge, John Townsend. American author, 
poet, and juvenile writer. Coupon Bonds and 
The Vagabonds are his best known productions. 
Born, 1827. 

Tupper, Sir Charles. A Canadian statesman. 
Served in several ministerial offices, and as Lord 
High Commissioner in London ; Premier (1896). 
Born, 1821. 

Turner, Joseph M. W. English painter. The 
Slave Ship. Born, 1775; died, 1851. 

Tweed, William Marcy. Famous Tammany 
“boss” in New York City. Convicted of fraud 
and imprisoned ; escaped to Spain, but was sent 
back, and died in prison. Born, 1823 ; died, 1878. 

Tyler, John. American President. Born in Vir¬ 
ginia ; practiced law ; M. C. 1816-21 ; Governor 
of Virginia 1825 ; elected U. S. Senator 1827 ; re¬ 
signed 1836 ; elected Vice-President on Whig 
ticket 1840 ; succeeded Harrison on his death in 
1841. Born, 1790; died, 1862. 

Tyndall, John. English physicist. Heat Considered 
as a Mode of Motion. Born, 1820 ; died, 1893. 
Attorney-General of New York 1815 ; leading 
man of the “Albany Regency ; ” 

V an Buren, Martin. American President. En¬ 
tered bar 1803 ; elected U. S. Senator by the 
Democrats 1821 ; Governor of New York 1828 ; 
Secretary of State 1829-31; Vice-President 1833- 
37; President 1837-41. Born, 1782; died, 1862. 
Vandyke, Sir Anthony. Flemish painter in Eng¬ 
land. Pupil of Rubens ; settled in England in 
1632, among his best works are The Erection of 
the Cross, Portrait of the Earl of Strafford, 
aud a Crucifixion. Born, 1599; died, 1641. 

Van Rensselaer, Stephen. American statesman 
and landholder. The Patroon. Founder of the 
Rensselaer Institute. Born, 1764; died, 1839. 
Vancouver, George. English navigator. Dis¬ 
coverer of Vancouver’s Island. Born, 1758 ; died, 
died 1798. 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius. American capitalist. 
Founder of the Vanderbilt family and fortune. 
Born, 1794; died, 1877. 

Vane, Sir Henry English painter. Statesman ; 
leader of independents ; head of navy ; beheaded. 
Born, 1612 ; died, 1662. 

Verdi, Guiseppe. Italian musical composer and 


Senator. Among his productions are Ernani, 
La Traviata, It Trovatore, Montezuma, and 
Aida^ Born, 1814 ; died, 1901. 

Vespucius, Americus. Italian navigator. America 
was named after him. Born, 1451 ; died, 1512. 
Victor, Emmanuel II. King of Sardinia; first 
King of Italy ; restorer of Italian unity. Born, 
1820 ; died, 1878. 

Victor, Emmanuel III. King of Italy. Succeeded 
to the throne in 1900, on the assassination of his 
father, Humbert I. Born, J869. 

Voltaire, Francois M. Arouet de. French philoso¬ 
pher, poet, historian, wit, skeptic. Passed the 
years 1750-53 with Frederick the Great; took up 
his residence (1755) at Ferney ; The Age of Louis 
XIV., Essay on the Manners of Nations, and 
Candide. Born, 1694 ; died, 1778. 

W ade, Benjamin F. American politician. Re¬ 
publican Senator from Ohio ; Abol itionist. 
Born, 1800; died, 1878. 

Wagner, Richard. German composer. 1 Lohen¬ 
grin, Gotterdammerung, Tannhauser, Rhein- 
gold, Nibelungenlied ; produced Parsifal at Bay¬ 
reuth, 1882. Born, 1813 ; died, 1883. 

Wainwright, Richard. U. S. naval officer. Execu¬ 
tive officer of the battleship Maine , blown up in 
Havana harbor ; commander of the Gloucester, 
battle of Santiago, 1898. Born, 1849. 

Wales, Albert Edward. Eldest son of Queen Vic¬ 
toria. Became King of England on the death of 
his mother, January, 1901, under the title of Ed¬ 
ward VII. Born, 1841. 

Wallace, Lewis. An American soldier and novel¬ 
ist. General in the Civil War ; wrote Ben Hur, 
The Prince of India, etc. Born, 1827. 

Wallace, Sir William. Scotch patriot and general. 
Fought Edward I. of England; executed. Born, 
1270 ; died, 1305. 

Wallenstein, Albert, Count of, German general. 
Opponent of Gustavus Adolphus, by whom he 
was defeated, 1632 ; in 1634 he was deprived of 
his command and assassinated. Born, 1583 ; 
died, 1634. 

Walton, Izaak. English writer. The Complete 
Angler. Born, 1593 ; died, 1683. 

Wanamaker, John. An American merchant. 
Originator of the department store idea; Post¬ 
master-General 1889-93. Born, 1838. 

Ward, Mrs. Humphrey. English novelist. Grand¬ 
daughter of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby. Robert 
Elsmere , Marcella . etc. Born, 1851. 

Warner, Charles Dudley. American humorist and 
essayist. Summer in a Garden, Back-log 
Studies , Washington Irving (1881), Captain 
John Smith, In the Levant. Born, 1828 ; died, 
1900. 

Washington, George. Commander-in-chief in the 
American Revolution. First President of the 
United States; aide de-camp to Braddock in the 
Indian campaign of 1755 ; married Martha Custis, 
1759; chosen to Congress, 1774 ; appointed Com¬ 
mander-in-chief, 1775 ; President, 1789-97. Born, 
1732 ; died, 1799. 

Watt, James. Scotch inventor. Principal inventor 
of the steam engine ; used the expansive force of 

767 





26 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


steam to depress a piston ; improved engines for 
pumping water. Born, 1736 ; died, 1819. 

Webster, Daniel. American lawyer, orator, and 
statesman. Greatest legal effort was the Dart¬ 
mouth College case; greatest Congressional 
speech was his reply to Hayne. Born, 1782 ; 
died, 1852. 

Webster, Noah. American lexicographer. Dic- 
tionary of the English Language. Born, 1758; 
died, 1843. 

Wedgewood, Josiah. English potter. Originator 
and maker of the famous “Wedgewood” ware. 
Born, 1730; died, 1795. 

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley. Duke of. British 
general and statesman. General in India ; was 
made commander-in-chief in Spain and Portugal; 
fought the battles of Talavera, Sabagal, and Al- 
buera ; captured Badajos, 1812 ; won at Waterloo, 
1815 ; was afterward Prime Minister and Minis¬ 
ter of Foreign Affairs. Born, 1769; died, 1852. 

Wesley, Charles, Rev. English poet and divine. 
Hymns. Born, 1708; died, 1788. 

Wesley, John. Founder of the Methodist Wes- 
leyans. Born, 1703 ; died, 1791. 

West, Benjamin. American painter in England. 
The Death of Wolfe, Death on the Pale Horse. 
Born, 1738; died, 1820. 

Westinghouse, George. American inventor. 
Famous for inventing the Westinghouse air¬ 
brake. Born, 1846. 

Wheeler, Joseph. American soldier. Graduated 
at West Point in 1859; entered Confederate 
service in Civil War ; entered Congress, 1881 ; 
took part in the Santiago campaign in Cuba in 
1898 ; served in the Philippines in 1899 ; appointed 
brigadier general in U. S. army. Born, 1836. 

Whitefield, George, Rev. English Methodist 
preacher and revivalist. Born, 1714 ; died, 1770. 

Whitney, Eli. American inventor. The cotton- 
gin. Born, 1765 ; died, 1825. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf. American poet, farmer, 
shoemaker, journalist, anti-slavery agitator. 
Snow-Bound, Voices of Freedom, Home Bal¬ 
lads, In War Time, The Tent on the Beach. 
Born, 1808 ; died, 1893. 

Whitman, Walt. American poet. Editor, car¬ 
penter, nurse, government clerk. Leaves of 
Grass, The Two Rivulets, Drum Taps, Demo¬ 
cratic Vistas. Born, 1819 ; died, 1892. 

Wilberforce, William. English philanthropist, 
statesman, and reformer. Secured abolition of 
slave trade. Born, 1759; died, 1833. 

Willard, Frances Elizabeth. American temper¬ 
ance reformer and lecturer. Founder of the 
World’s W. T. C. U., and its first president; 
author of several reformatory works. Born, 
1839; died, 1898. 

William I. Seventh King of Prussia, and first 
German Emperor. He succeeded to the throne 
in 1861, and was crowned Emporer in 1871, on 
the formation of the German Empire after the 
Franco-Prussian War. Born, 1797 ; died, 1888. 

William II. Emperor of Germany. Son of 
Frederick, the second Emperor, whom he suc¬ 
ceeded in 1888. Born, 1859. 

768 


Will iams, Roger. Founder of Rhode Island 
Colony. Born, 1606 ; died, 1683. 

Winthrop, John. Governor and founder of the 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. Born, 1588; died, 1649. 

Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal. English statesman. 
Chancellor of Henry VIII.; secured Henry's 
divorce from Catherine. Born, 1471 ; died, 1530. 

Worcester, J. E. American lexicographer. Dic¬ 
tionary. Born, 1734; died, 1866. 

Wordsworth, William. English poet. Educated 
at Cambridge ; with Coleridge produced Lyrical 
Ballads , 1798 ; settled at Rydal Mount, 1803 ; 
published Poems, 1807 ; The Excursion , 1814. 
Among his other works are Ecclesiastical Son¬ 
nets, The Wagoner, Yarrow Revisited , The 
Prelude. Born, 1770; died, 1850. 

Wren, Sir Christopher. English architect. St. 
Paul’s Cathedral. Born, 1632 ; died, 1723. 

Wycliffe, John de. English reformer. Translator 
of the Scriptures. Born, 1324 ; died, 1384. 

avier, Francis, Saint. “ Apostle of the Indies.” 
Jesuit missionary to India and Japan. Born, 
1506; died, 1552. 

Xerxes 1 . King of Persia. Invader of Greece ; 
beaten at Salamis. Born, b. c. —; died, 465. 

ale, Elihu. Founder of Yale College. Born, 
1648 ; died, 1721. 

Yonge, Charlotte. A well-known author, writer of 
novels, and children’s books and histories. The 
Heir of Redclyjfe, Cameos of History of Eng¬ 
land. Born, 1823 ; died, 1901. 

Young, Brigham. American religionist. Head of 
the Mormons. Born, 1801 ; died, 1877. 

Young, Edward. English poet. Rector of Welwyn, 
in Hertfordshire. Night Thoughts, The Revenge, 
The Love of Fame. Born, 1684; died, 1756. 

enobia, Septimia. Queen of Palmyra (266-73.) 
Her dominions extended from the Mediter¬ 
ranean to the Euphrates, and included alarge 
part of Asia Minor. She refused allegiance to 
Aurelian, who defeated her and captured Palmyra; 
passed the rest of her life at Tibur, in Italy. 
Born, — ; died, 275. 

Zeuxis. Greek painter. The Infant Hercules 
Strangling a Serpent. Flourished b. c. 5th 
century. 

Zinzendorf, Nicholas Louis, Count of. Founder 
of the Moravians. The fourney of Atticus 
Through the World. Born, 1700; died, 1760. 

Ziska, John. Hussite chief. Beat Imperial armies 
thirteen times. Born, 1360 ; died, 1424. 

Zola, Emile. French novelist. Wrote Contes a 
Ninon and other collections of short stories, and 
a large number of realistic novels. Among the 
latest are Lourdes, Rome, and Paris Born, 1840. 

Zoroaster. A Persian philosopher. Distinguished 
as the founder of the Magian religion. 1500 to 
200 b. c. 

Zwingli, Ulric. Swiss reformer. Exposition of 
the Christian Faith. Killed in battle. Born 
1484; died, 1531. 

Zwirner, Ernst Friedrich. German architect. 
Completed Cathedral of Cologne ; built many 
castles on the Rhine, famed for their beauty. 
Born, 1802 ; died, 1861. 





































